MIXING : Theory and

Equipment
 Introduction

Mixing is defined as a process that tends to

result in a randomization of dissimilar particles within a system.

• The term MIX means to put together in one mass.

• The term BLENDING means to mix smoothly and inseparably

together during which a minimum energy is imparted to the bed.

• The terms MIXING and BLENDING are commonly used

interchangeable in the Food industry.
Mixing: Theory and Equipment 2
 Definition

• Mixing is Randomization of dissimilar particles.

e.g. -
Spatulation,
Trituration,
Tumbling and
Geometric dilution
 Reduction of Particle Size
The manually operated procedures are trituration,
pulverization and levigation.

1- Trituration: is used to comminute( reduce particle

size) & to mix powders.
1-A porcelin preferred than glass morter.
2- A glass morter is preferrable for chemicals that stain a
porcelin. When granular or crystalline materials are to
be incorporated in to powdered product ,these
materials are comminuted individually and then blended
together in the morter.

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 2-
Pulverizatio
n reduced& subdivided with an additional
Substance are
material ( i.e solvent) that can be removed easily
after pulverization is complete.
* This technique is applied to
Substances which are gummy and tend to
reagglomerate or which resist grinding. As camphor
which is gummy, so addition of alcohol or other
volatile solvent can be reduced readily to a fine
powder.
Similarly, iodine crystals may be comminuted with the
aid of ether.
In both instances the solvent is permitted to evaporate
and the powdered material is recovered

5
3- Levigation

In this process
A- paste is first formed by the
addition of a suitable non solvent to
the solid material.
B-Particle-size reduction then
accomplished by rubbing the
paste in a mortar with a pestle or
on an ointment’ slab using a
spatula.
6
Methods of Powder Mixing

1 Mechanical Mixing
2 Hand Mixing:
2.1- Spatulation (spatula + tile)
2.2- Trituration (mortar + pestle)
2.3- Tumbling (wide mouth closed
container)

7
 Mixing of
powders
Large-Scale Mixing Equipment
The ideal mixer should
1 produce a complete blend rapidly to avoid
product damage.

2It should be cleaned and discharged easily

3- be dust-tight
4 require low maintenance and low power
consumption.

8
 Small-Scale Mixing
Equipment

1- Mortar and pestle

* The pharmacist most generally employs the mortar and pestle for
the small-scale mixing

* The mortar and pestle method is a single operation. Thus, it is

particularly useful where some degree of particle-size reduction
as well as mixing is required as in the case of mixtures of
crystalline material.
9
 Small-Scale Mixing
Equipment
2- Spatulation
The blending of powders with a spatula on a tile
or paper used sometimes for small quantities
or when the mortar and pestle technique is
undesirable.

It is not suitable for large quantities of powders

or for powders containing one or more potent
substance because homogenous blending
may
not occur.
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 Small-Scale Mixing
Equipment
3- Sieving
Sieving usually is employed as a pre-or
post-mixing method to reduce loosely held
agglomerates and to increase the overall
effectiveness of blending process.

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 Small-Scale Mixing
Equipment
4-Tumbling
 Powder is mixed in rotating

chamber.
 Mixing is thorough but time

consuming. Mostly used in industry

12
 Extemporaneous
Techniques
1. Use of geometric dilution for the incorporation of small
amounts of potent drugs

Geometric dilution:

Entire quantity of potent drug (x volume) + (x volume) of

the diluents + (2x volume) of the diluents + (4x
volume) of the diluents………repeated until all the
diluents are used.

13
 Extemporaneous
Techniques
2. Reduction of particle size of all ingredients
to the same range.
3. Sieving when necessary to achieve mixing
or reduction of agglomerates, especially in
powders into which liquids have been
incorporated.
4. Heavy trituration, when applicable, to
reduce the bulkiness of a powder.

5. Protection against humidity, air oxidation

and loss of volatile ingredients.
14
 Definition

• Mixing may be defined as the process in which two

or more than two components in a separate or
roughly mixed condition are treated in such a way
so that each particle of any one ingredient lies as
nearly as possible to the adjacent particles of other
ingredients or components. This process may
involve the mixing of gases, liquids or solids in any
possible combination.
 Application and example of Mixing

• Mixing of powders in varying proportions prior to

granulation or tabletting.
• Dry mixing of the materials for direct compression
in tablets
• Dry mixing of the materials for direct compression
in tablets.
• Dry blending of powders in capsules and
compound powders (insufflations).
 Application and example of Mixing

• Blending of powders in cosmetics in the preparation

of face powders, tooth powders .
• Dissolution of soluble solids in viscous liquids for
dispensing in soft capsules and in the preparation of
syrups
• Mixing of two immiscible liquids for preparation of
emulsions.
Depending on the flow properties of materials,

solids are divided into two types:

I. Cohesive materials - These are
characterized by their resistance to flow
through openings for e.g. wet clay.

II. Noncohesive materials – These materials

flow readily such as grain, dry sand, plastic
chips etc.
 Objectives????
• To ensure that there is uniformity of composition
between the mixed ingredients.
• To initiate or to enhance the physical or chemical
reactions e.g. diffusion, dissolution etc.
 Types of mixtures:

• Mixtures may be classified as follows:

• Positive mixtures - Positive mixtures are formed
from materials such as gases or miscible liquids
which mix spontaneously and irreversibly by
diffusion, and tend to approach a perfect mix.
• Negative mixtures- With negative mixtures the
components will tend to separate out. If this occurs
quickly, then energy must be continuously input to
keep the components adequately dispersed, e.g.
with a suspension formulation, such as calamine
lotion.
 Types of mixtures:

• Neutral mixtures - Neutral mixtures are said to

be static in behaviour, i.e. the components have
no tendency to mix spontaneously or segregate
spontaneously once work has been input to mix
them. Examples of this type of mixture include
mixed powders, pastes and ointments.
Classification of mixing
A. Mixing of solids
B. Mixing of liquids
C. Mixing of immiscible liquids
D. Mixing of semisolids

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 22

 A. Mixing of solids
• In the manufacture of tablets or granules normally a number of additives are
added. Therefore mixing of powder becomes essential part of the process.

• Mixing is considered as a critical factor, especially in case of potent drugs and

low dose drugs where high amounts of adjuvants are added.

• The diverse characteristics of particles such as size shape volume surface area
density porosity flow charge contribute to the solid mixing.

• Depending on their flow properties solids are divided into two classes as
cohesive and non cohesive.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 23

 Interparticle interactions &
segregation
1.Inertial forces:
These forces hold neighboring particles in fixed relative
position.
E.g.: Vander Waal forces, electrostatic forces, surface forces.

Surface forces:
Cohesive forces and frictional forces results in surface-surface
interactions which resist the movement of particles, hence they should be
minimal.

During mixing, the particles develop surface charge which produce particle-
particle repulsions, which make random mixing impossible.

These depend on surface area, surface roughness, polarity, charge, moisture.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 24
 Segregation
• Poor flow properties.
• Particle size difference.
• Difference in mobilities.
• Differences in particle density and shape.
• Transporting stage.
• Dusting stage.
 It may occur even after mixing.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 25

 2. Gravitational forces
• Improve the movement of two adjacent particles or groups of
particles
• When particle-particle collisions occur , exchange of momentum is
achieved continuous exchange or distribution of momentum
between transitional and rotational modes is necessary for effective
mixing
• Efficiency of momentum transfer depends on
 Elasticity of the collisions
 Coefficient of friction
 Surface area of contact
 Centrifugal forces

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 26

Mechanism of mixing of solids
1. Convective mixing/Macro mixing:
Inversion of the powder bed using blades or paddles or
screw element, in which large mass of material moves from one
place to another.
2. Shear mixing:
In this type, forces of attraction are broken down so that
each particle moves on its own between regions of different
components and parallel to their surface.
3. Diffusion mixing/Micro mixing:
Involves the random motion of particle within the
powder bed, thereby particles change their position relative to one
another.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 27

 Mixing process - steps
• In the solid-solid mixing operations , four steps are involves.
These are:

1. Expansion of the bed of solids

2. Application of 3-dimensional shear forces to the powder bed.
3. Mix long enough to permit true randomization of particles.
4. Maintain randomization.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 28

The law of mixing appears to follow first order,

Where M = degree of mixing after time t,

T = time
A and k = constants

 A and k depends on the

 Mixer geometry
 Physical characteristics of the powders and
 Proportion of the material being mixed.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 29

 Degree of mixing
• Ideal mixing or perfect mixing:

• Acceptable mixing:
1. Random mixing
2. Ordered mixing
– Mechanical means of ordered mixing
– Adhesion means of ordered mixing
– Coating means Mixing:
of ordered mixing
Theory and Equipment 30
Adhesion means of ordered mixing:

Coating means of ordered mixing:

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 31

 Statistical parameters
Arithmetic mean:
Size distribution is calculated
Arithmetic mean

Standard deviation:
Used to know the spread of dispersion.
Standard deviation

• Mixing should be continued until the amount of the active drug that
is required is with in ± 3 SD units that of found by assay in a
representative number of sample dose.

Relative standard deviation:

• It replace the S.D as a measure of sample uniformity.
• Useful for comparing the efficiency of two or more mixing operations or different
sample size or different composition.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 32

 Mixing indices
• Involves the comparison of SD of sample of a mixture under
study with the estimated standard deviation of a completely
random mixture.
• It can be expressed in two ways:-

or

M = mixing index
Where,

= standard deviation of the random blend

= standard deviation of the sample blend
= standard deviation of the unmixed
powder
Mixing: Theory and Equipment 33
 Statistical evaluation
Objectives:
• To compare the efficiency of two or more mixing operations.
• To compare the efficiency of two or more equipment.
• To follow the mixing process with time.
• To optimize processing parameters
• To investigate the mechanism of mixing in a given piece of equipment.
Sample size:
• Approximately a unit dose of the final product.
Number of samples:
• Required – 30
• Ideal – 100
• Economical sampling – 20
Sample collection:
• At different intervals when the blend is in motion.
• After blending is completed
Sample utilization:
• Scooping sampling
• Thief probing
Sampling methods:
• Non destructive
Mixing: Theory and Equipment 34
• destructive
Factors influencing mixing
• Nature of surface: Rough surface of one of
the components does not induce satisfactory
mixing.
• Material density: Demixing is accelerated
when the density of the smaller particles is
higher or when the mixing process is
stopped abruptly.
• Particle size: It is easy mix two powders
having approximately the same particle size.
The variation of particle size can lead to
segregation.
• Particle shape: The ideal particle is spherical
in shape for the purpose of uniform mixing.
Mixing: Theory and Equipment 35
Factors influencing mixing
• Particles charge: Some particle exert attractive
forces due to electrostatic charges on them.
• Particle attraction: Sometimes particles may
separate and segregate due to particle
attraction.
• Proportions of materials to be mixed: The best
results can be obtained if two powders are
mixed in equal proportion by weight and by
volume.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 36

 EQUIPMENT
Criteria:
1. Powder bed should not be filled for more than 60%
2. Particles should be subjected to movement in three
directions
3. Shearing force should be sufficient to prevent
aggregation.
4. There should be no centrifugal effect
5. Forces should not cause breakage of the particles.
6. The mixing process should be stopped abruptly.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 37

Classification of equipment for solid
mixing
• Based on flow properties:
1.Free flowing solids:
e.g.: V cone blend , Double cone blender
2.Cohesive solids:
e.g.: Sigma blender, Planetary mixer
• Based on scale of mixing:
1.Batch type(small scale):
e.g.: Mortar and pestle, V cone blender, Double cone blender,
Ribbon blender, Sigma blender, Planetary paddle, Fluidized
mixer
2.Continuous type(large scale):
e.g.: barrel type, zigzag type
Mixing: Theory and Equipment 38
S.no. Nature of mixer Examples Mechanism of
mixing

1 Batch type Mortar pestle Trituration

2 Tumbling mixers or cylindrical Double cone blender Tumbling action

mixers with no mixing blade V cone blender

3 Tumbling mixer with a mixing V cone blender double Tumbling action as

blade cone blender well as shearing with
blade

4 Static mixers Ribbon blender Stationary shell and

Sigma blender rotating blade
Planetary paddle

5 Air mixers or fluidized mixers Fluidized mixer Air supported

blending

6 Continuous type Barrel type Rotating shell with

Zigzag type rotating blade

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 39

Tumblers or cylindrical blenders
with no mixing blade
• Meant for dry powders
• Equipment consists of a container of any geometric form.
• Container is mounted on special roller so that it can be rotated about any axis.
• Edge of 27 degrees is good for mixing.
• Efficiency of a tumbler mixer highly depends on the speed of rotation. It
should be critical and optimum.
• Slow rotation- no intense tumbling, No cascade motion, Not enough shear
rates are applied.
• Rapid rotation-sufficient centrifugal action to the powder to the side of the
mixer, more dusting and segregation of fines is possible.
• Rate of rotation depends upon size , shape of the tumbler and nature of the
material to be mixed. Common range is 30-100rpm.
• Mixing is done by tumbling motion, which is accentuated by virtue of the
shape of the container.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 40

 Twin shell blender or V cone blender
• It is V shaped and made up of stainless
steel or transparent plastic.
• Material is loaded through shell hatches
and emptying is normally done through
and apex port.
• The material is loaded approximately
50-60% of the total volume.
• Small models – 20 kg , rotate at 35rpm
• Large models – 1 ton, rotate at 15rpm
• As the blender rotates , the material
undergoes tumbling motion.
• When V is inverted, the material splits
into two portions. This process of
dividing and recombining continuously
yields ordered mixing by mechanical
means.
Mixing: Theory and Equipment 41
 Double cone blender
• It consists of double cone on rotating shaft.
• It is usually used for small amount of
powders.
• It is efficient for mixing powders of
different densities.
• Material is loaded and emptying is done
through the same port.
• The rate of rotation should be optimum
depending upon the size, shape of the
tumbler and nature of the material to be
mixed.
• The rate of rotation commonly ranges from
30-100rpm.
• Mixing occurs due to tumbling motion. Double cone
blender
Mixing: Theory and Equipment 42
Advantages of V cone blender and double cone
blenders:
• If fragile granules are to be blended, twin shell blender is suitable
because of minimum attrition.
• They handle large capacities.
• Easy to clean , load, and unload.
• This equipment requires minimum maintenance.

Disadvantages of V cone blender and double

cone blenders:
• Twin shell blender needs high headspace for installation.
• It is not suitable for fine particulate system or ingredients of large
differences in the particle size distribution, because not enough
shear is applied.
• If powders are free flowing, serial dilution is required for the
addition of low dose active ingredients.
Mixing: Theory and Equipment 43
Tumbling blenders with agitator mixing
blades

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 44

Advantages of tumblers with blades:
• Baffles are useful for both wet and dry mixing.
• Wide range of shearing force can be applied with agitator
bars permitting the intimate mixing of very fine as well as
coarse powders.
• Serial dilution is not needed when incorporating low-dose
active ingredients.

Disadvantages of tumblers with blades:

• Attrition is large, size reduction of friable particles results.
• Scale-up can prove a problem, because general principles
of scale-up do not work
• Cleaning may be a problem, because agitator assembly
must be removed and the packing should be replaced for a
product changeover
• Potential packing (sealing) problems occur.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 45

 Ribbon blender
Principle:
Mechanism of mixing is shear. Shear
is transferred by moving blades. High shear rates
are effective in breaking lumps and aggregates.
Convective mixing also occurs as the powder bed
is lifted and allowed to cascade to the bottom of
the container. An equilibrium state of mixing can
be achieved.

Construction:
• Consists of horizontal cylindrical trough usually
open at the top. It is fitted with two helical
blades, which are mounted on the same shaft
through the long axis of the trough.
• Blades have both right and left hand twists.
• Blades are connected to fixed speed drive.
• It can be loaded by top loading and emptying
is done through bottom port.
Mixing: Theory and Equipment 46
 Working:

Uses:
 Used for mixing of finely divided solids, wet solid mass, and
plastic solids.
 Uniform size and density materials can be easily mixed.
 Used for solid – solid and liquid – solid mixing.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 47

Advantages of ribbon blender:
• High shear can be applied by using perforated
baffles, which bring about a rubbing and
breakdown aggregates.
• Headroom requires less space.

Disadvantages of ribbon blender:

• It is a poor mixer, because movement of
particles is two dimensional..
• Shearing action is less than in planetary mixer.
• Dead spots are observed in the mixer, though
they are minimum.
• It has fixed speed drive.
Mixing: Theory and Equipment 48
 Sigma blade mixer
Principle – shear. Inter meshing of sigma blades
creates high shear and kneading action.

Construction and working:

• It consists of double tough shaped stationary bowl.
• Two sigma shaped blades are fitted horizontally in
each tough of the bowl.
• These blades are connected to a fixed speed drive.
• Mixer is loaded from top and unloaded by tilting the
entire bowl.
• The blades move at different speeds , one about
twice than the other, which allows movement of
powder from sides to centers.
• The material also moves top to downwards and gets
sheared between the blades and the wall of the
tough resulting cascading action.
• Perforated blades can be used to break lumps and
aggregates which creates high shear forces. Sigma blade
• The final stage of mix represents an equilibrium
mixer
state.
Mixing: Theory and Equipment 49
Uses of sigma blade mixer:
• Used in the wet granulation process in the
manufacture of tablets, pill masses and
ointments,
• It is primarily used for liquid – solid mixing,
although it can be used for solid – solid mixing.

Advantages of sigma blade mixer:

• Sigma blade mixer creates a minimum dead
space during mixing.
• It has close tolerances between the blades and
the sidewalls as well as bottom of the mixer shell.

Disadvantages of sigma blade mixer:

• Sigma blade mixer works at a fixed speed.
Mixing: Theory and Equipment 50
 Planetary mixer
Principle:
Mechanism of mixing is shear. Shear
is applied between moving blade and stationary
wall. Mixing arm moves around its own axis and
around the central axis so that it reaches every
spot of the vessel. The plates in the blades are
sloped so that powder makes an upward
movement to achieve tumbling action also.

Construction:
• Consists of vertical cylinder shell which can be
removed.
• The blade is mounted from the top of the
bowl.
• Mixing shaft is driven by planetary gear and it
is normally built with variable speed drive.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 51

Uses :
• Break down agglomerates rapidly.
• Low speeds are used for dry blending and fast for
wet granulation.

Advantages:
• Speed of rotation can be varied at will.
• More useful for wet granulation process.

Disadvantages:
• Mechanical heat is buildup within the powder mix.
• It requires high power.
• It has limited size and is useful for batch work
only. Mixing: Theory and Equipment 52
 Air mixer or Fluidized
mixer
Principle:
The air movement is used for mixing
powders. Air is admitted at its base at an
angle which gives tumbling action and
spiral movements to the powder. Thus
mixing is achieved.

Construction:
• It consists of stationary vessel which
may be horizontal or vertical which is
made up of stainless steel.
• A wire mesh is placed at the bottom of
the vessel which acts as support for
placing the materials.
• Air is allowed from beneath the mesh
and circulated by using a fan.

16/08/2012 Mixing: Theory and Equipment 53

Advantages of fluidized mixer:
• Reduced mixing time.
• Mixing is intimate and efficient
• Useful for drying and wet massing.
• Also useful for coating with some modifications.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 54

 Barrel type continuous
Principle:
mixer
Rotating shell keeps the material under tumbling
motion. When the material approach the mid-point of
the shell, another set of baffles causes part of the
material to move towards the direction of inlet end
allowing the remaining part to move forward. This
process continuous up to discharge end, while
another set of baffles guide the material to the
discharge port.

Construction:
Resembles large cement mixer.
Baffles are fitted to the inner surface of the shell. Barrel Type continuous mixe
Shell is fixed to a shaft, which is allowed to rotate
using electrical power.
Side openings are provided on each side for charging
and discharging of the material.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 55

 Zigzag continuous blender
Principle :
• Material undergoes tumbling
motion.
• It is rotating shell type having
several V shaped blenders
connected in series.
• When V section is inverted the
material splits into two portions ;
one half moves backward while
another half moves forward.
• As the first V section clears the
charge, a fresh feed enters, hence
used for continuous blending. Zigzag continuous
blender
Construction :
• It consists of a long shell, which takes the shape of several V shaped blenders connected in
series.
• At one end of the shell a chamber for feeding is attached.
• The other end allows the discharge of material
• The shell is inclined towards to discharge end.
Mixing: Theory and Equipment 56
 Applications of solid mixing
• Involved in the preparation of many types of
formulations.
• It is also an intermediate stage in the production of
several dosage forms.
– Wet mixing in the granulation step in the production of
tablets and capsules.
– Dry mixing of several ingredients ready for direct
compression as in tablets.
– Dry blending of powders in capsules, dry syrups and
compound powders.
– Production of pellets for capsules.
Mixing: Theory and Equipment 57
 B. Mixing of Fluids
Mechanism:
• Bulk transport: Movement of large portion o a material from one
location to another location in a give system. Rotating blades and paddles
are used.
• Turbulent mixing: Highly effective, mixing is due to turbulent flow
which results in random fluctuation of the fluid velocity at any given point
within the system. Fluid velocity at a given point changes in 3 directions (X, Y
and Z).

• Laminar mixing: Mixing of two dissimilar liquids through laminar flow,

i.e., applied shear stretches the interface between them. Suitable for liquids
which require moderate mixing.

• Molecular diffusion: Mixing at molecular level in which molecules

diffuse due to thermal motion.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 58

 Mixing Apparatus for
fluids
• A Container and
• A Mixing Device or
Impeller

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 59

 Mixing Device
• Based on shape and pitch , the are classified into 3
types,
»Propellers
»Turbines
»Paddles

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 60

 Propellers
• It consists of number of blades, generally 3 bladed
design is most common for liquids. Blades may be
right or left handed depending upon the slant of their
blades.
• Two are more propellers are used for deep tank.
• Size of propeller is small and may increased up to
0.5metres depending upon the size of the tank.
• Small size propellers can rotate up to 8000rpm and
produce longitudinal movement.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 61

Advantages of propellers:
Used when high mixing capacity is required.
Effective for liquids which have maximum viscosity of 2.0pascals.sec
or slurry up to 10% solids of fine mesh size.
Effective gas-liquid dispersion is possible at laboratory scale.

Disadvantages of propellers:
Propellers are not normally effective with liquids of viscosity greater
than 5pascal.second, such as glycerin castor oil, etc.,

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 62

 Turbines
• A turbine consists of a circular disc to which
a number of short blades are attached.
Blades may be straight or curved.
• The diameter of the turbine ranges from 30-
50% of the diameter of the vessel.
• Turbines rotates at a lower speed than the
propellers (50-200rpm).
• Flat blade turbines produce radial and
tangential flow but as the speed increases
radial flow dominates. Pitched blade turbine
produces axial flow.
Near the impeller zone of rapid currents, high turbulence and
intense shear is observed. Shear produced by turbines can be further
enhanced using a diffuser ring (stationary perforated ring which surrounds
the turbine).
Diffuser ring increase the shear forces and liquid passes
through the perforations reducing rotational swirling and vortexing.
Mixing: Theory and Equipment 63
Advantages of
Turbines:
• Turbines give greater shearing forces
than propellers through the pumping
rate is less. Therefore suitable for
emulsification.
• Effective for high viscous solutions
with a wide range of viscosities up to
7.0low
• In Pascal. Second.
viscous materials of large volumes turbine create a strong
currents which spread throughout the tank destroying stagnant
pockets.
• They can handle slurries with 60% solids.
• Turbines are suitable for liquids of large volume and high
viscosity, if the tank is baffled.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 64

 Paddles
• A paddle consists of a central hub with
long flat blades attached to it vertically.
• Two blades or four blades are common.
sometimes the blades are pitched and
may be dished or hemispherical in
shape and have a large surface area in
relation to the tank in which they are
used.
• Paddles rotates at a low speed of
100rpm.
• They push the liquid radially and tangentially with almost no axial action unless
blades are pitched.
• In deep tanks several paddles are attached one above the other on the same
shaft.
• At very low speeds it gives mild agitation in unbaffled tank but as for high speeds
baffles are necessary.
Mixing: Theory and Equipment 65
Uses of paddles:
Paddles are used in
the manufacture of antacid
suspensions, agar and pectin
related purgatives, antidiarrheal
mixtures such as bismuth-kaolin.

Advantages of paddles:
Vortex formation is not possible with paddle
impellers because of low speed mixing.

Disadvantages of paddles:
Mixing of the suspension is poor therefore baffled
tanks are required.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 66

 Flow pattern during mixing
1. Tangential component
or circular:
Acts in the direction tangent to the circle of
rotation around the impeller shaft. If shaft is placed
vertically and centrally, tangential flow follows a
circular path around the shaft and creates a vortex in
the liquid.

2.Radial
component:
Acts in the direction
vertical to the impeller shaft.
Excessive radial flow takes the
material to the container wall then
material falls to the bottom and
16/08/2012
rotate as the mass beneath the67
Mixing: Theory and Equipment
impeller
3. Axial component or longitudinal or
vertical: Acts in the direction parallel to the impeller shaft.
Inadequate longitudinal component causes the liquid and solid to rotate
in layers without mixing. Adequate longitudinal pattern is best used to
generate strong vertical currents particularly when suspending solids are
present in a liquid.

Impeller type Flow component

Propellers Axial
Turbines Axial or tangential or both
Paddles Radial and tangential
Paddles with pitch Radial, tangential and axial
Mixing: Theory and Equipment 68
 Vortex formation
• A strong circulatory flow pattern sometimes
manifests into formation of a vortex near the
impeller shaft.

Vortex can be formed when

• Shaft is placed symmetrically in the tank.
• Blades in the turbines are arranged
perpendicular to the central shaft.
• At high impeller speeds
• In unbaffled tanks

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 69

 Disadvantages of vortex
formation
• Vortex formation reduces mixing
intensity by reducing velocity of the
impeller relative to the surrounding
fluid.

• When vortex reaches the impeller, air

from the surface of the liquid are drawn
and air bubbles are produced.

• Air bubbles in the fluid can create

uneven loading of the impeller blades.

• Entrapped air causes oxidation of the

substances in certain cases.
Mixing: Theory and Equipment 70
Prevention of vortex formation
1. Impeller should in in any one of the position that can avoid symmetry such as
off central, inclined, side entering, etc., and should be deep in the liquid.

2. Baffled containers should be used. In such case impeller can be mounted

vertically at the center.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 71

3. Two or more impellers are mounted on the same shaft where
greater depth is required. This system is known as push and pull mechanism.
The bottom impeller is placed about one impeller diameter above the
bottom of the tank. It creates zone of high turbulence.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 72

4. Tank other than cylindrical in shape are used to
prevent vortex formation. However, such shapes may
facilitate the formation of dead spots

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 73

 Return flow with Draft tubes
• Draft tubes are placed to control the
direction and velocity of the flow to
the impeller.

• These are mounted around the

propeller. In case of turbines, draft
tubes are mounted immediately
above the impeller.

Uses:
• Draft tubes are fitted to equipment used in the manufacture of certain emulsions.
• When solid particles tend to float on the surface of the liquid, they are dispersed
using draft tubes.
• Air jet mixers of continuous mixing of liquids employ draft tubes.

Disadvantage:
• Draft tubes add to the fluid friction
Mixing:in theand
Theory system. These reduce rate of flow.
Equipment 74
Factors influencing mixing of liquids in
tanks
 Material related factors-
– Properties of liquids: physical properties of materials to be mixed.
e.g.: Density, Viscosity and miscibility.

 Equipment related factors-

– Shape of impeller: Propeller type, straight, vertical, curved, or pitched.
– Position of impeller: Central, off-center, side entry, vertical or inclined etc.,
– Shape and size of the container: cylindrical or other geometric forms. Presence or
absence of baffles.
– Cost of equipment and its maintenance.

 Process related factors-

– Speed of rotation of the impeller.
– Time required for mixing.
– Amount of power that can be expended.
– Ease of operation.
– Batch size. Mixing: Theory and Equipment 75
Equipment for Liquid mixing
1. Air jet mixer
2. Jet mixer
3. Flow mixer or line mixer or pipe mixer

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 76

 1. Air jet mixer
Principle:
When compressed air jets are passes rom
the bottom of a vessel, air bubbles are
formed in the liquid phase. The buoyancy
of the bubbles lifts the liquids, which are
confines to the central portion due to the
presence of drat tubes. The liquids flow
down from the periphery of the vessel and
enter from the bottom due to suction
effect.

Construction:
Compresses air or suitable gas is allowed
to pass at high pressure from the inlet
provided at the bottom of the tank.
This causes buoyancy of the bubbles which
lifts the liquid rom bottom to the top of
the vessel.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 77

 2. Jet mixer
• It consists of a vessel and a mixing device
known as Jet.
• A typical jet-mixing system has 12 jets
arranged radially in a cluster in the centre
of the mixing tank. The cluster of jets is
called an eddy jet mixer.
• An individual jet has two concentric
nozzles with a suction chamber between
them.
• A single eddy jet mixer may have 4 - 24 jets, but 8 - 12 is the usual configuration.

• Likewise, a single tank may have 1 or more eddy jet mixers, though 1 is most usual.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 78

 2. Jet mixer
• The tank contents are pumped
through the top of the mixer to the
primary nozzles. Then, after passing
through the common suction
chamber, the 12 streams of fluid are
discharged into the tank through the
secondary nozzles.
• As the pressurized fluid flows through
the primary nozzle and into the
chamber, it creates a suction because
of its high velocity-typically 6-10 m/s
for low-shear mixing and 10-20 m/s
for high shear.

• This suction draws fluid from the tank into the chamber, where the large velocity
difference causes intense mixing.
• The mixed fluid is then expelled from the jet through the secondary nozzle. This forms a
cone that entrains the surrounding liquid, and a plume that spreads horizontally before
rising to the surface. The plume imparts most of its energy to the fluid in its path, causing
circulation and mixing throughout the tank. Mixing in the tank is less intense than in the
suction chamber. Mixing: Theory and Equipment 79
 Applications of Jet mixer

• Jet mixers tend to be used in situations that require turbulence,

rapid approach to homogeneity, and high local shear rates.

• Jet mixing is normally used for liquids and slurries having

viscosities below 1,000 cP; a mechanical agitator is generally
more efficient for higher-viscosity fluids.

• Mainly useful for processes of liquid blending.

e.g., neutralization or extraction.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 80

 3. Flow mixer or line mixer or pipe mixer
• It may consist a baffled pipe or an
empty chamber.
• Liquids to be mixed are passed
through the pipe/ chamber.
• Mixing takes place through bulk
transport in the direction of flow.
• The power supplied to pump the
liquid itself accomplishes mixing. Baffled pipe
• For effective mixing controlling the
feed rate is essential.
• If the input rate is difficult to control and fluctuations in the added proportions
of the liquids are unavoidable, continuous mixing equipment of tank type is
preferable, because hold-up of the liquids and back flow or recirculation is
possible.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 81

Applications of pipe line mixer
• Used when large volume of liquids are to be mixed.
• Used for continuous mixing.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 82

Advantages of liquid mixing

• Liquid mixing promotes heat transfer between liquid

and a heating source. This step is essential in the
crystallization of drug substances. Uniform heat transfer
in the solution yields crystals of same size.
• Liquid mixing is essential in the manufacture of number
of dosageforms.
E.g.:
– Suspensions
– Emulsions
– Solutions
– Aerosols
Mixing: Theory and Equipment 83
 C. Mixing of immiscible
Liquids
Carried mainly in the manufacture of emulsions, and the equipment
used for the preparation of an emulsion is known as emulsifier. Also known as
homogenizer as it results in fine emulsion.

Fine emulsion is prepared in 2 stages.

In 1st stage coarse emulsion is prepared by using one of the following process:-
– Wedge wood
– Mechanical blender
– Hand homogenizer
– Porcelain mortar and pestle
– Milk shake mixer
– Propeller in a baffled tank
Some times the above equipment directly gives fine emulsion.
Otherwise coarse emulsion is subjected to homogenizer in the 2nd stage to
get fine emulsion by using following process:-
– Silverson emulsifier
– Colloidal mill
– Rapisonic homogenizer Mixing: Theory and Equipment 84
Factors influencing selection of an
emulsifier
1. Quantity of emulsion to be prepared: batch wise or
continuous operation
2. Flow properties of liquids: Newtonian, plastic, pseudo
plastic or dilatant.
3. Temperature maintenance: mixing will be effective at
high temperatures provided the material is stable.
4. Desired rate of cooling: if elevated temperatures are
applied

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 85

 Equipment
• Silverson emulsifier
• Colloidal mill
• Rapisonic homogenizer

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 86

 Silverson mixer -Emulsifier
Principle:
• It produces intense shearing forces and
turbulence by use of high speed rotors.
• Circulation of material takes place through
the head by the suction produced in the
inlet at the bottom of the head.
• Circulation of the material ensures rapid
breakdown of the dispersed liquid into
smaller globules.
• It consists of long supporting columns and
a central portion. Central portion consists
of a shaft which is connected to motor at
one end and other to the head.
• Head carries turbine blades.
• Blades are surrounded by a mesh, which is
further enclosed by a cover having
openings.
Mixing: Theory and Equipment 87
Uses:
• Used for the preparation of emulsions and creams of
fine particle size.
Advantages:
• Silver son mixer is available in different sizes to
handle the liquids ranging from a few milli liters to
several thousand liters.
• Can be used for batch operations as well as for
continuous operations by incorporating into a
pipeline, through which the immiscible liquids flow.
• Disadvantages:
• Occasionally, there is a chance is clogging of pores
of the mesh. Mixing: Theory and Equipment 88
 Colloid mill

16/08/2012 Mixing: Theory and Equipment 89

 Ultrasonic Emulsifiers – Rapisonic
homogenizer
Principle:
• When a liquid is subjected to ultrasonic vibrations
alternate regions of compression and rarefaction are
produced in the liquid.
• Cavities are formed in the regions of rarefaction which
subsequently collapse in the regions of compression.
Which results great forces for emulsification.
Construction:
• It consists of a pump driven by a motor. It is connected
to inlet tube and an out let tube.
• Head consists of a flat jet for liquid inlet. Facing the jet, a
thin blade is present which vibrates at its natural
frequency.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 90

Advantages of rapisonic
emulsifier:
• Can be used for batch process (by placing it in a tank) or for continuous
process (by placing it in a pipeline).
• It has the capacity to produce dispersed globules of one micron size.
• As this method is highly efficient to decrease globule size, reduced
concentration of emulgents is sufficient.
• Its capacity of mixing liquids ranges from 20 - 500 liters per minute.
• It is suitable for thermolabile substances since heat is not generated during
mixing.

Disadvantages of rapisonic
emulsifier:
• It is useful only for low viscous liquids.
Mixing: Theory and Equipment 91
 D. Mixing of semisolids
• Semi solids dosageforms include ointments, pastes, creams, jellies, etc., while
mixing such dosageforms , the material must be brought to the agitator or the
agitator must move the material throughout the mixer.

• The mixing action include combination of low speed shear, smearing, wiping,
folding, stretching and compressing.

• A large amount of mechanical energy is applied to the material by moving parts.

Sometimes a part of the supplied energy appears as heat.

• The forces required for efficient mixing are high and consumption of power is also
high. Hence the equipment must be rugged constructed to tolerate these forces.

• Some semisolids exhibit dilatant property i.e., viscosity increases with increase in
shear rates. Therefore, mixing must be done at lower speeds.

• The speed must be changed accordingly to thixotropic, plastic and pseudo plastic
materials. Mixing: Theory and Equipment 92
 Classification of equipment
• Agitator mixers:
e.g.:- Sigma mixers and Planetary mixer.
• Shear mixers:
e.g.:- Triple roller mill and Colloidal mill.

Selection of mixing equipment for semi solids

• Physical properties of the materials – density viscosity and
miscibility.
• Economic considerations regarding processing – time required
for mixing and power consumption.
• The cost of equipment and its maintenance.
Mixing: Theory and Equipment 93
 Triple roller mill
Principle:- High shear , which causes
crushing of aggregates, particles and also
distributes the drug uniformly throughout
the semi solid base.

• It consists of 3 parallel rollers of equal

diameters made up of stainless steel.
• These are mounted on rigid frame
work horizontally.
• The gap between the first 2 rollers is
more than that of the gap between
the last two.
• A hopper is placed in between the first
two rollers.
• A scrapper is attached to the last roller.
• First roller rotates at lower speed
compared to the 2nd similarly 2nd roller
speed is less than the 3rd roller.
Mixing: Theory and Equipment 94
Advantages of triple roller
mill
• From the small to the large batch - Three roll mills are ideally suited for
processing the smallest and also very large quantities.
• Excellent temperature control - Three roll mills enable excellent control
of the product temperature, since the product is processed as a thin
film on the roller. This way, the product can be warmed or cooled off
depending on your requirements.
• Avoid contamination - Through the selection of materials for the rollers
and scraper knives, which are available in a broad spectrum of chrome-
plated steel, aluminium oxide, zirconium oxide, and silicon carbide, it is
possible to avoid product contamination due to metal abrasion.
• Extremely uniform dispersion is obtained.
• low material loss.
• easy cleaning.

Mixing: Theory and Equipment 95

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Mixing: Theory and Equipment 96