DEFENCE UNIVERSITY,COLLEGE OF

ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER AND
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

COMPUTER GRAPHICS

By: Getaneh T.
E-Mail: [email protected]
1
 CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
GRAPHICS
 Computer graphics involves display,
manipulation data for proper visualization
using computer.
 Generate 2D images of a 3D world

represented in a computer.
 Main tasks:
 Modeling:creating and representing the
geometry of objects in the 3D world
 Rendering: generating 2D images of the objects
 Animation: describing how objects change in
time
2
.
 Typical graphical system consists of host
computer with support of fast processor ,
large memory ,frame buffer and
 Display devices(Monitors)
 Input devices(keyboards, mouse , joysticks)
 Output devices(printers, plotters, LCD panel)

3
HISTORY OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS
 First Generation (1951 - 1959)
 UNIVAC(UNIVersal Automatic Computer)
(1951)
 Crude hardcopy devices (line printer pictures)
 Data was displayed on printers or
hardcopy plotters
 Computers were “number crunchers”;
hardware was expensive!
 First computer-driven display (Late 50s
and early 60s)
 attached to MIT’s Whirlwind I computer
 display was CRT similar to one used in TV sets 4
5
COMPUTER GRAPHICS HISTORY
CONTINUED
 SAGE air-defense
system (mid 50s)
used command &
control CRT
 used CRT display

consoles on which
operators identified
targets with light
pens

6
 COMPUTER GRAPHICS HISTORY
CONTINUED
 Beginnings of modern interactive graphics
attributed to Ivan Sutherland’s doctoral work
 presented work at Spring Joint Computer
Conference in 1963 in the form of a movie.
 He developed the Sketchpad drawing system

7
8
 SUTHERLAND’S WORK
CONTINUED

 the system included interactive techniques

that used the keyboard and light pen for
making choices, pointing, and drawing
 the film showed Sutherland sketching a bolt
on the screen.
 He formulated the ideas of
 display primitives (lines, polygons, arcs, characters)
 constraints on primitives
 developed algorithms for dragging, rubberbanding,
transforming (rotating, scaling, translating)
 introduced data structures for storing hierarchies built
up via easy replication of standard components
9
 MORE SUTHERLAND
 Subsequently, Sutherland became director of
DARPA, then professor at Harvard and later
founder of Evans & Sutherland, a leading
edge graphics firm
 He is considered to be the founder of the

computer graphics field

 Because of his work, CAD & CAM became

attractive
 By the mid-sixties, much research was being

done
10
 COMPUTER GRAPHICS OF THE
60’S
 Hardware expensive
 large scale, expensive computing
resources needed
 About 1965, IBM brought out the first
widely available interactive computer
graphics terminal
 vector graphics display
 sold for more than $100,000
 Only designers could use the display
system
11
12
 MORE DEVELOPMENTS
 The next landmark was a special type of CRT
produced by Tektronix - the direct-view
storage tube (DVST)
 Introduced in 1968
 complete with keyboard, mouse, simple
computer interface for $15,000
 made interactive computer graphics affordable

13
14
 WHERE DID GRAPHICS GO
NEXT?
 By late 60’s many researchers were
concerned with dynamic graphics.
 Realistic flight simulation applications
were needed
 To make them realistic, solid colored
surfaces were needed (not wireframe)
 TV raster displays were used to create
such images
 Systems built by GE for NASA were
probably the earliest examples of such
displays 15
 RASTER GRAPHICS CONTINUED
 Xerox Palo Alto Research Center designed a
new graphics-based personal minicomputer
called the Alto
 Design was based on:
 cost of computing falling - every “knowledge
worker” should have a personal computer
 Alto computers should be connected for
communication & resource-sharing
 interface between user & computer should be
graphical
 graphics display should be based on raster-graphics
technology -- a very bold idea
16
Xerox Alto

17
 MORE HARDWARE
DEVELOPMENT’S
 PC’s in the 80’s
 costs decrease drastically
 built-in raster displays
 bitmap graphics used

18
 SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENTS
 Sketchpad graphics
 Early days software was nontransportable at

the assembly language level

 Push in 70’s for high-level, machine- and

device-independent graphics subroutine

packages
 Like FORTRAN virtualized I/O, these packages

defined virtual screens and virtual input

devices
 locater to drive cursor & pass (x,y) back
 pick to select objects on screen
19
 SOFTWARE CONTINUED
 The awareness of the need for standards
culminated in
 specification of the 3D Core Graphics System
 produced by an ACM SIGGRAPH Committee in late
70’s
 used as input to official standards projects within
both ANSI and ISO
 First graphics standard was GKS (1985)
 like Core but 2D
 PHIGS (Programmer’s Hierarchical Interactive
Graphics System) was a 3D extension of GKS
became an ANSI standard in 1988
20
 SOFTWARE CONTINUED
 Also
in the 80’s X Windows was
developed
 goals of X are totally different
 X is a windowing management system
 allows for creation & manipulation of overlapping,
resizable windows
 provides features of GUIs - pop-up, pull-down menus,

dialog boxes, etc.

 Also includes functions for input devices such as a
mouse as well as simple 2D graphics operations
 Designed to operate transparently on a network
with many dissimilar computers & workstations
 development began at MIT in 1984

21
 MORE SOFTWARE
 OpenGL was introduced by SGI in 1992
 OpenGL is the “Assembler Language” of
Computer Graphics
 has portable, interactive 2D and 3D
graphics applications
 low-level, vendor-neutral software
interface
 broad platform accessibility in the industry

22
 SOFTWARE
 Sun formally announced Java in 1995
 Developed by James Gosling (originally
called Oak)
 Considered to be a software development
platform-- includes graphics & windowing
capabilities
 Java AWT (Abstract Windowing Toolkit)
 Java 2D

 Java 3D

23
INTERACTIVE GRAPHICS SYSTEM
.

Display Unit
Applicatio Applicatio
Graphics
n n
System
Model Program

Input Unit

24
.
 Designer of computer graphics system or
software engineer puts his design in
application model.
 He will then writes the program to model the

object he is planning to display.

 This application will run on the computer

graphics system and output will be displayed

on the display devices and the required input
can be obtained from the input devices.

25
TYPES OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS

 Simple or
 Passive Computer Graphics

 Interactive or
 Active computer graphics

26
DIFFERENCE B/W ACTIVE AND
PASSIVE GRAPHICS
Passive Active
 Control  Control
 No Control  Dynamic nature
 Communication  Communication
 One Way  2-Way
Communication Communication
 Interaction  Interaction
 No Interaction b/w  High bandwidth user
User and H/W interaction
 Earlier supported  Modern Applications
 Motion & Updation  Motion & Updation
 No facility  2-D, 3-D
Transformations 27
ADVANTAGES
 High quality graphics display provide best
way to communicate with computer.
 It is possible to produce animation.

 Can be used to control animation such as

speed, total scene in view etc.

 Provides facility of update dynamic which can

be used to change shape , color and other

properties of object in view.
 With the development in DSP it can provide

audio feedback along with the video.

28
APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER
GRAPHICS
 Computer Aided Design (CAD)
 Presentation Graphics

 Computer Art

 Entertainment (animation, games, …)

 Education & Training

 Visualization (scientific & business)

 Image Processing

 Graphical User Interfaces

29
 1.COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (CAD)
 Used in design of buildings, automobiles,
aircraft, watercraft, spacecraft, computers,
textiles & many other products
 Objects are displayed in wire frame outline
form
 Software packages provide multi-window
environment

30
 Graphics design package provides
standard shapes (useful for repeated
placements)
 Animations are also used in CAD

applications
 Realistic displays of architectural design

permits simulated “walk” through the

rooms (virtual -reality systems)

31
2.PRESENTATION GRAPHICS
 Used to produce illustrations for
reports or generate slides for use with
projectors
 Commonly used to summarize

financial, statistical, mathematical,

scientific, economic data for research
reports, managerial reports &
customer information bulletins
 Examples : Bar charts, line graphs, pie

charts, surface graphs, time chart 32

EXAMPLES OF PRESENTATION
GRAPHICS

33
EXAMPLES OF PRESENTATION
GRAPHICS

34
EXAMPLES OF PRESENTATION
GRAPHICS

35
3.COMPUTER ART

 Used in fine art & commercial art

 Includes artist’s paintbrush programs, paint packages,
CAD packages and animation packages
 These packages provides facilities for designing object
shapes & specifying object motions.
 Examples : Cartoon drawing, paintings, product
advertisements, logo design

36
EXAMPLES :

37
 COMPUTER ART

 Electronic painting
 Picturepainted electronically on
a graphics tablet (digitizer) using a stylus
 Cordless, pressure sensitive stylus
 Morphing
A graphics method in which one object is
transformed into another

38
39
4.ENTERTAINMENT
 Movie Industry
 Used in motion pictures, music
videos, and television shows.
 Used in making of cartoon

animation films

40

Slide information from Leonard McMillian's slides

http://www.cs.unc.edu/~mcmillan/comp136/Lecture1/
compgraf.html
COMPUTER GRAPHICS IS ABOUT
ANIMATION (FILMS)

41
 Game Industry
 Focus on interactivity
 Cost effective solutions
 Avoiding computations and

other tricks

42
5.EDUCATION & TRAINING
 Computer generated models of physical,
financial and economic systems are used as
educational aids.
 Models of physical systems, physiological

systems, population trends, or equipment

such as color-coded diagram help trainees
understand the operation of the system

43
 Specialized systems
used for training
applications
 simulators for practice
sessions or training of
ship captains
 aircraft pilots
 heavy equipment
operators
 air traffic-control
personnel
 Driving training

44
TRAINING

45
6.VISUALIZATION
 Scientific Visualization
 Producing graphical representations for scientific,
engineering, and medical data sets

46
SCIENTIFIC VISUALISATION
To view below and
above our visual range

47
 Business Visualization is used in connection with
data sets related to commerce, industry and other
non-scientific areas
 Techniques used- color coding, contour plots,
graphs, charts, surface renderings & visualizations
of volume interiors.
 Image processing techniques are combined with
computer graphics to produce many of the data
visualizations

48
7. IMAGE PROCESSING
 Image Processing – applies techniques to
modify or interpret existing pictures such
as photographs and TV scans
 Medical applications
 Pictureenhancements
 Tomography
 Simulations of operations
 Ultrasonics & nuclear medicine scanners
2 applications of image processing
 Improving picture quality
 Machine perception of visual information
(Robotics)
49
 To apply image processing methods
 Digitizea photograph (or picture) into an image file
 Apply digital methods to rearrange picture parts to
 enhance color separations
 Improve quality of shading

 Tomography – technique of X-ray photography that

allows cross-sectional views of physiological systems
to be displayed
 Computed X-ray tomography (CT) and position
emission tomography ( PET) use projection methods
to reconstruct cross sections from digital data
 Computer-Aided Surgery is a medical application
technique to model and study physical functions to
design artificial limbs and to plan & practice surgery

50
51
52
GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACES
 It is the interface of the software that
communicates with the user with help of
some input devices.
 It contains number of windows , menus and

icons for fast selection of processing options.

53
GUI
 Graphics have revolutionized user interface
design.
 Properly used it can effectively utilize a

person's information processing abilities and

allow for faster interaction with computer
systems.

54
THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD
INTERFACE DESIGN
 Theuser interface may be the only
contact that the user has with the
system.
 the interface is the system designer's way
of representing the system to the user;
this is called a conceptual model
 if the interface is confusing, then the user
may chose not to use the system at all or
will use it incorrectly
 at the very least, a frustrating interface
can cause stress and discomfort
 a well-designed interface can increase
55
productivity
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GUI

A user interface is a collection of

techniques and mechanisms that allow a
user to interact with a system.

 Graphical
 primary interaction mechanism is a pointing
device.

56
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GUI

A user interface is a collection of

techniques and mechanisms that allow a
user to interact with a system.

 Objects
 theuser interacts with a collection of elements
called objects which are always visible to the user
and are used to perform tasks.

57
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GUI

A user interface is a collection of

techniques and mechanisms that allow a
user to interact with a system.

 Actions
 theuser performs actions on objects such as
accessing and modifying by pointing, selecting and
manipulating.

58
DIRECT MANIPULATION
 Direct manipulation systems have the
following characteristics
 the system is portrayed as an extension of the
real world
 there is continuous visibility of objects and
actions
 actions are rapid and incremental with a
visible display of results
 incremental actions are easily reversible

59
INDIRECT MANIPULATION
 Indirectmanipulation uses words and
text (typing instead of pointing)
 notall concepts can be represented
graphically
 space in the interface may be limited

Most GUI's are a combination of direct

and indirect manipulation. When each
type of manipulation should be used is
still not understood entirely.
60
ADVANTAGES OF GUIS

 Symbols are easy to recognize and fast

to learn.
 Color
is important for classifying objects
and components.
 Symbols can aid in problem solving.
 Casual users can remember symbols

easier than words.

 Visual and spatial cues can be utilized

to provide more information in a

natural way.
 This, 61
of course, excludes the visually-
impaired.
ADVANTAGES OF GUIS
 Some types of error situations can be
avoided because they are not allowed
to occur through input.
 Reduces the need for typing skills.
 Pointing skills are needed instead and this
is not trivial for all types of users (the
elderly, persons with limited fine motor
control).
 Immediate feedback allows for a better
conceptual model of the system for
62
the user.
ADVANTAGES OF GUIS
 More attractive than other interfaces
and thus encourages more interaction
and exploration.
 Symbols have the potential to be much
more universal than natural language
text.
 There are still cultural differences in the
interpretation of symbols and colors and
thus the need to consider the consequences
of internationalism are not entirely
eliminated.
 There are many fewer symbols than words
63
so not everything can be expressed as a
symbol.
GRAPHICAL INPUT DEVICES
 Input devices are things we use to put
information into a computer.
 An input device is any hardware device that
sends data to the computer, without any input
devices, a computer would only be a display
device and not allow users to interact with it,
much like a TV.
 For example, a keyboard is an input device.
 Input devices other than the keyboard are
sometimes called alternate input devices.
 Mice, trackballs, and light pens are all alternate
input devices. 64
 Graphi
Keybo
c
ard
Tablet

Mouse Data
Glove
Light Graphi
Pen c Cards 65
KEYBOARD
 Invented 100 years ago Used to type data into the
computer
 Most common input device today
 Has special keys for giving the computer commands
 Commands tell the computer to do something, like
save the file
 These special keys are called command or function
keys

 There is no specific standard.

 Different types of keyboards
 It depends what we need to input
 ATM keyboard, piano keyboard, alarm system keboard
etc
66
ADVANTAGES OF KEYBOARD
 You may chat with other players if in an
online game such as World of Warcraft,
Runescape, Toontown, and the like.
Relatedly, some games require a keyboard to
play. You may enter information into
databases (Such as WikiPedia, WikiAnswers)
 Homework, schoolwork, or work-work can be
done neatly using keyboard-required
software. (Microsoft word, notepad)
 The use of a keyboard can enable shortcuts
with some programs. Any information that
needs to be entered into a computer,
network, and/or etc. can be added with, 67
usually, ease.
DISADVANTAGES OF KEYBOARD
 Keyboards can add up in price. Wireless
keyboards can get up to, but are not limited
to, $125.
 If not wireless, keyboards can add another

wire (or more) to a bulk of other wires,

making any workspace messy(confused).
 If wireless, there may be very slight

interference on some rare frequency

channels. Multiple wireless keyboards may
cross paths if settings are not set up
correctly. (Resulting in as tunned, confused
user) 68
MOUSE
A pointing device that fits comfortably
under the palm of your hand
 The most widely used pointing device

on desktop computers
 The mouse controls the movement of

the pointer, also called the mouse

pointer, on the screen

69
 HOW DOES A MECHANICAL MOUSE
WORK?
 A rubber or metal ball is
on its underside
 When the ball rolls in a mouse
mouse wheel
wheel
certain buttons
buttons button
button
direction, electronic circuits
in
the mouse translate the
movement
of the mouse into signals
the
computer understands
 A mouse pad provides better

traction and protects the ball

ball
ball 70
from a build up of dust and
dirt
HOW DOES AN OPTICAL MOUSE
WORK?
 Uses devices that emit & sense light
to detect the mouse’s movement
back
back wheel
wheel
button button
 Some use optical sensors; button
others
button
forward
forward
use laser button
button
 More precise than a mechanical

mouse & does not require cleaning

 Slightly more expensive

optical
optical
sensor
sensor
71
ADVANTAGES OF MOUSE
 Can be installed without any installation
software.
 Mouse scroll is actually interchangeable.

a. Free scrolling pertaining to web browsing

b. Just click scrolling for choosing weapons
and even potions

72
DISADVANTAGES OF MOUSE
 They need a flat surface to be used, or else
they won't function.

73
LIGHT PENS
 A light pen is a pen-shaped input device.
 A light pen utilizes a light sensitive detector,
requiring you to hold a pen and point it at the
screen.
 The device contains a light sensor which, when
pointed at a cathode ray tube screen, generates a
signal each time the electron beam raster passes
by the spot the pen is pointing at.
 Light enters the lens of a light pen, where it
encounters a photoelectric cell, which converts
the energy to a signal that is sent to the computer.
The light is obtained from the refresh of the CRT,
and at the instant the light is generated, the
computer knows what location on the screen is
being refreshed; this information is coordinated
with the signal from the light pen, and is 74
subsequently used by the graphics software to
make a decision.
75
ADVANTAGES OF LIGHT PENS
 Allows you to select objects on a display screen
- It has great accuracy-drawing directly on the
screen so it is more accurate-more precise
 Durability and Accuracy : The light pen and
computer respond instantly when you move it
or click on one of the buttons located on the
pen's sides. The tip cannot damage the
computer screen in any way.
 Flexibility: In addition to having the full range of
mouse options, including allowing you to drag
and drop, you can use the light pen to directly
draw or write on the screen. This makes
providing your signature relatively simple.
76
ADVANTAGES OF LIGHT PENS
 The amount of work space is reduced when
you use a light pen instead of a mouse
because you do not need a flat surface to
operate a light pen.
 Maintenance and Value :Buying a light pen to

use on your CRT computer monitor is

cheaper than buying a touch-screen monitor.
The same is true for repairs or replacements.

77
DISADVANTAGES OF LIGHT
PENS
 Light pens have the advantage of 'drawing'
directly onto the screen, but this can become
uncomfortable, and they are not as accurate
as digitizing tablets.
 Light pens normally require a specially

designed monitor to work with.

78
GRAPHIC CARDS
 A graphics card, also known as a video card, is a
piece of hardware installed in a computer that is
responsible for rendering the image on the
computer’s monitor or display screen.
 Graphics cards come in many varieties with
varying features
 The first consideration when buying a
graphics card is to be sure it is capable of
displaying the best resolution the monitor can
support. For Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) monitors
this means supporting the native resolution.
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitors do not have a
native resolution. In this case, ensure the card is
capable of supporting the highest resolution, 79
even if the CRT monitor will be frequently used
at lower resolutions.
GRAPHIC CARDS
 The second consideration is on-board
memory. A graphics card must work very
hard to render images to the screen. Unlike
text files, graphics images are much larger
files consisting of great amounts of data that
must be processed by the graphics or
video card. A faster card has its own resident
memory chips to perform this function so as
not to impinge upon the system’s Random
Access Memory (RAM). Less robust cards
have less resident memory and require
sharing system RAM to process images. 80
WORKING OF GRAPHIC CARDS
 The images you see on your monitor are made of
tiny dots called pixels. At most common resolution
settings, a screen displays over a million pixels,
and the computer has to decide what to do with
every one in order to create an image. To do this,
it needs a translator -- something to take binary
data from the CPU and turn it into a picture you
can see. Unless a computer has graphics
capability built into the motherboard, that
translation takes place on the graphics card.
 A graphics card's job is complex, but its principles
and components are easy to understand. In this
article, we will look at the basic parts of a video
card and what they do. We'll also examine the
factors that work together to make a fast, efficient 81
graphics card.
WORKING OF GRAPHIC CARDS
 Think of a computer as a company with its own
art department. When people in the company
want a piece of artwork, they send a request to
the art department. The art department decides
how to create the image and then puts it on
paper. The end result is that someone's idea
becomes an actual, viewable picture.
 A graphics card works along the same
principles. The CPU, working in conjunction with
software applications, sends information about
the image to the graphics card. The graphics
card decides how to use the pixels on the
screen to create the image. It then sends that
information to the monitor through a cable. ­ 82
WORKING OF GRAPHIC CARDS
 Creating an image out of binary data is a demanding
process. To make a 3-D image, the graphics card first
creates a wire frame out of straight lines. Then, it
rasterizes the image (fills in the remaining pixels). It
also adds lighting, texture and color. For fast-paced
games, the computer has to go through this process
about sixty times per second. Without a graphics card
to perform the necessary calculations, the workload
would be too much for the computer to handle.
 The graphics card accomplishes this task using four
main components:
 A motherboard connection for data and power
 A processor to decide what to do with each pixel on the
screen
 Memory to hold information about each pixel and to
temporarily store completed pictures 83
 A monitor connection so you can see the final result
ADVANTAGES OF GRAPHIC
CARDS
 The advantage of a graphics card is that it
allows you to hook up a monitor and see what
your computer is doing.
 More room to run applications in, less scrolling
side to side and up and down in your windows,
more colors (this isn't necessarily true, but it is
a closely related topic, and I'll address this
issue below), more colors means nicer looking
pictures (ever notice that annoying color
banding (called dithering) in most of the
pictures you look at), A much less cluttered
appearance (unless you're one of those people
who upon getting more space, feels the need
to fill it up). 84
DISADVANTAGES OF GRAPHIC
CARD
 The disadvantage is that your computer wont
work without one.
 With higher resolutions and colors, there is a
performance hit (speed), which could be big or
small depending on your hardware and the
resolution you set up (generally it's a very
small performance hit). This is due to the fact
that there is much more information to deal
with as well as more pixels to update on-
screen (I'll get to this below), The higher you
set your resolution, the smaller your icons and
text, and your refresh rate drops (I'll get to
this too).
85
DATA GLOVE
 Data Glove is a device to interact with animated
artificial objects. Consider a glove fitted with sensors
and electrical wires hooked to a glove compatible
computer.
 Here, we can see our hand inside the glove in the
display monitor of the computer. As we rotate or move
our hand and manipulate our fingers, we can see our
hand inside the glove in the display monitor of the
computer. Consider further that a graphic object is
described in the monitor. The object may be animated.
It may even be a scaled replica of a real life object.
 Now , if we try to move our hand in space in such a
way that the image of our hand in the display
manipulates the graphic object in the screen, we shall
have a strange feelings. With out actually touching
anything, we may distort the shape of the object using
the image of our hand inside the dataglove! This glove
act as an agent to transport the user to an artificial 86
domain.
DATA GLOVE

87
 A graphics tablet is a computer input device that enables
a user to hand-draw images and graphics, similar to the
way a person draws images with a pencil and paper.
 These tablets may also be used to capture data or
handwritten signatures.
 It can also be used to trace an image from a piece of paper
which is taped or otherwise secured to the surface.
 Capturing data in this way, either by drawing or entering
the angles of linear poly-lines or shapes is called digitizing.
 The device consists of a flat surface upon which
 the user may "draw" or touch an image using an
 attached stylus, a pen-like drawing device.

 The image generally does not appear on the

 tablet itself but, rather, is displayed on the
 computer monitor. 88
 Easy way to control a computer
 Easy way to draw a scale image on a

computer
 better quality of image

 More effective than mouse input.

 Can input pressure data for use in a graphics

package

89
 Touch screens break easily
 The stylus pens can be easily lost therefore the
graphics tablet
will not work
 slower then paper drawing Can be awkward to
access menus and make selections Larger
designs (A4 for example) are expensive
 More expensive than a mouse, especially in the
larger sizes.
 Not as precise as a mouse for menu control, so it
tends to be an addition rather than a
replacement
 Graphic tablets are rather like electronic tracing
paper and, like paper ,they one in all sizes from a
modest A4 size to a very large A0 size which will 90
occupy the best part of a desk.
GRAPHICAL TABLET

91
 GRAPHICAL DISPLAYS DEVICES
•• A
A display
display device
device isis an
an output
output device
device for
for presentation
presentation of
of
information
information inin visual
visual or
or tactile
tactile form
form (the
(the latter
latter used
used for
for example
example in
in
tactile
tactile electronic
electronic displays
displays for
for blind
blind people).
people).
•• Emissive display -- convert electrical energy into light
-- Cathode
Cathode ray
ray tube
tube (CRT)
(CRT)
-- Flat
Flat panel
panel CRT
CRT
-- Plasma
Plasma panels
panels (gas-discharge
(gas-discharge display)
display)
-- Thin-film
Thin-film electroluminescent
electroluminescent (EL)
(EL) display
display
-- Light-emitting
Light-emitting diodes
diodes

•• Non-Emissive display -- optical effect: convert

sunlight or light from other source into graphic
patterns.
-- Liquid-crystal
Liquid-crystal device
device (LCD)
(LCD) –– flat
flat panel
panel
-- Passive-matrix
Passive-matrix LCD
LCD
-- Active-matrix
Active-matrix LCD
LCD

92
MONOCHROME CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT)


 Cathode
Cathode Ray
Ray –– beam
beam of
of electrons
electrons
-- emitted
emitted by
by an
an electron
electron gun
gun
-- accelerated
accelerated by by aa high
high positive
positive voltage
voltage near
near the
the face
face of
of the
the tube
tube
-- forced
forced into
into aa narrow
narrow stream
stream by by aa focusing
focusing system
system
-- directed
directed toward
toward aa point
point onon the
the screen
screen by by the
the magnetic
magnetic field
field generated
generated
by
by the
the deflection
deflection coils
coils
-- hit
hit onto
onto the
the the
the phosphor-coated
phosphor-coated screenscreen
-- phosphor
phosphor emits
emits visible
visible light,
light, whose
whose intensity
intensity depends
depends onon the
the number
number
of
of
electrons
electrons striking
striking on
on the
the screen
screen

Electron gun

Cathode
93
Focusing Horizontal
system & vertical
deflection
 PROPERTIES OF THE CRT

 Phosphor
Phosphor Persistence
Persistence (PP)
(PP)
-- the
the light output decays exponentially
light output decays exponentially withwith time.
time.
-- aa phosphor’s
phosphor’s persistence is defined as the time from
persistence is defined as the time from the
the removal
removal ofof
excitation to the moment of decaying the light to one-tenth
excitation to the moment of decaying the light to one-tenth of its of its
original
original intensity
intensity
-- low
low persistence
persistence ->-> good
good for
for animation
animation
-- high
high persistence
persistence ->-> good
good for
for static
static picture
picture with
with high
high complexity
complexity
-- typical
typical range:
range: 10ms
10ms –– 60ms
60ms

 Refresh
Refresh rate
rate (RR)
(RR)
-- number
number of times
of times per
per second
second the
the image
image is
is redrawn
redrawn (e.g.,
(e.g., 60
60 or
or higher)
higher)

 Critical
Critical fusion
fusion frequency
frequency (CFF)
(CFF)
-- the
the refresh
refresh rate
rate above
above which
which aa picture
picture stops
stops flickering
flickering and
and becomes
becomes
steady
steady

 longer
longer PPPP ->
-> lower
lower CFF
CFF required
required

94
 PROPERTIES OF THE CRT


 Resolution
Resolution
-- the
the maximum
maximum number
number ofof points
points that
that can
can be
be displayed
displayed without
without
overlap
overlap onon
a
a CRT
CRT
-- high-definition
high-definition system,
system, e.g.
e.g. 1280
1280 ** 1024
1024 pixels
pixels
-- resolution
resolution depends
depends onon the
the type
type of
of phosphor,
phosphor, the
the intensity
intensity to
to be
be
displayed,
displayed, focusing
focusing and
and deflection
deflection systems,
systems, size
size of
of video
video memory
memory

 Horizontal
Horizontal scan
scan rate
rate
-- the
the number
number ofof scan
scan lines
lines per
per second
second that
that the
the CRT
CRT is
is able
able to
to display
display
-- refresh
refresh rate
rate ** number
number ofof scan
scan lines
lines per
per frame
frame

95
 CRT COLOR
MONITOR
CRT

Shadow Mask

Electron Guns

Red Input

Green
Input

Blue Input

Deflection
Yoke Red, Blue,
and Green
Phosphor Dots
96
 SHADOW
MASK
•Shadow mask has one small hole for each phosphor
triad.
•Holes are precisely aligned with respect to both the
triads and the electron guns, so that each dot is
exposed to electrons from only one gun.
•The number of electrons in each beam controls the
amount of red, blue and green light generated by the
triad. SHADOW MASK
Phosphor Dot
Screen

Red
Green Convergence 97
Blue Point
PROPERTIES OF THE CRT
 Dot Pitch –the spacing between pixels on a
CRT, measured in millimeters. Generally, the
lower the number, the more detailed the
image.

98
 LIQUID-CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)
It is a flat panel display.
It is a thin, lightweight display device.
It has no moving parts.
It consists of an electrically-controlled
light-polarising liquid trapped in cells
between two transparent polarising sheets.
An electric current passed through the
liquid causes the crystals to align or not so
that light can/cannot pass through them.
Each crystal, therefore, is like a shutter,
either allowing light to pass through or
blocking the light.
99
 LIQUID-CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)
Made up of six layers:
1. Vertical filter film to polarize the light as it enters.
2. Glass substrate with electrodes which lines up with
the vertical filter. The shapes of these electrodes
will determine the shapes on the LCD.
3. Twisted liquid crystals.
4. Glass substrate with common electrode film which
lines up with the horizontal filter.
5. Horizontal filter film to block/allow through light.
6. Reflective surface to send light back to viewer.

100
 CRT VS LCD
 Physical Size, Weight – An LCD has one third the size of a
CRT, and it is much lighter.
 Display Size – LCDs are sized by their actual viewable
diagonal measurement, but CRTs are not. E.g. the viewable
area on a 17" LCD monitor will measure 17" diagonally, but
the viewable area on a CRT monitor will only measure 16"
diagonally.
 Colours – Most CRT monitors are capable of displaying
unlimited colours. Some LCD monitors are only capable of
hundreds or thousands of colours, but many of the newer
LCD's are capable of unlimited colours.
 Resolution – CRT monitors are usually capable of displaying
multiple video resolutions, each with the same quality. LCD
monitors, however, usually have what is called a Native
resolution, or the resolution that it displays best. The native
resolution is generally the highest resolution that the LCD
can display.

101
 CRT VS LCD
Viewing Angle –A CRT screen can be looked at from a very wide
angle, practically from the side, but an LCD monitor typically
has a smaller viewing angle. From the side, the image on an
LCD screen can seem to disappear, or invert colours. Newer
displays that are coming out have wider viewing angles.
Brightness is not a concern with CRT monitors. LCD monitors
have different levels of brightness. The brightness rating for an
LCD monitor is commonly referred to as 'nits', and commonly
range from 70 to 300 nits. The higher the nits, the brighter the
display.
Power Consumption and Radiation Emission – LCD monitors
consume much less energy than CRT monitors. Secondly, CRT
monitors are known to emit harmful radiation, whereas LCD
monitors do not.
Price – CRT monitors are more affordable than LCD monitors.
However the LCD’s cost have come down quite a lot in the last
1-2 years. An LCD monitor will cost more but will conserve
energy in the long run. The energy savings may not be much
for an individual user, but with a corporation the energy savings
might be more of an issue.

102
LED
 LED: - This is also a Emissive Technology
Which Contains a Matrix of diodes those
are arranged on the Screen as the Pixel
Position.
 And the Picture definition is Stored in

the Refresh buffer and when information is

Read from the refresh buffer and then it is
Converted into the Voltage Levels and it is
applied to diodes which produce the light
Pattern in the Display

103
 GRAPHICS SOFTWARE

 A graphics software is an intermediary

between an application program & the
graphics hardware.
 The output primitives & interaction devices

that a graphics package supports can range

from rudimentary to extremely rich.

104
There are two general classifications for
graphics software:
 General Programming packages: provides
an extensive set of graphics functions that
can be used in a high-level programming
language, such as C or FORTRAN. Basic
functions in a general package include those
for generating picture components (straight
line, circle, polygon etc),setting color and
intensity values, & applying transformations.

105
Special-purpose applications packages:
Designed for nonprogrammers, so that users can
generate displays without worrying about how
graphics operations work. Example of such
application packages are the artist’s painting
programs and various business,medical and
CAD systems.

106
 Coordinate Representation
 General Graphics packages are designed to

be used with Cartesian coordinates.

 Several different Cartesian reference frames

are used to construct & display a scene.

107
 Graphics Functions
These packages provides users with a variety of
functions for creating & manipulating
pictures.
 Output primitives: basic building blocks.

 Attributes: properties of the output primitives.

 Geometric transformations: changing size,

position.

108
 Modeling transformations: construct scene
using object descriptions.
 Viewing transformations: are used to specify

the view that is to be presented.

 Input Functions: used to control & process

the data flow from the interactive devices

such as mouse, tablet or joystick.
 Control operations: contains no. of

housekeeping tasks such as clearing a

display screen & initializing parameters.

109
Software Standards
A standard graphics package such as
GKS(Graphical kernal system) & PHIGS
(Programmers Hierarchical Interactive
graphics system) implements a specification
designated as standard by an official national
or international standard bodies by ISO and
ANSI(American National Standard Institute).

110
 The main purpose of such standards is to
promote portability of application programs &
of programmers.
 Non-official standards are also developed,

promoted & licensed by individual companies

or by consortia of companies eg
Adobe’s Post script & MIT’s X window system
are two industry standards.

111
 GKS originally designed as a 2-D graphics
packages, a 3-D GKS extension was
subsequently developed.
 PHIGS is a extension of GKS having increased

capabilities for object modeling, color

specification, surface rendering etc.
 Extension of PHIGS called PHIGS+ provide 3-D

surface shading capabilities.

112
 GKS primitives:
There are basic four primitives:
(a) Polyline: used to draw lines.
POLYLINE(n, X, Y)
n = length of an array
X & Y = array of x,y coordinate
(b) Polymarker: used to plot points.
POLYMARKER(n, X, Y)
n = number of data points

113
(c ) Fill Area: also used to draw line but it always
connects the first and last points in the array.
FILL AREA(n, X, Y)
(d) Text: used to print the “string” or “text”
starting at the given coordinates.
TEXT(x, y, “String”)

114