Calculus I

2023 Spring
1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS

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1.1 Functions and
Their Representations

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Functions and Their Representations
Functions arise whenever one quantity depends on
another. Consider the following two situations.

A. The area A of a circle depends on the radius r of the

circle. The rule that connects r and A is given by the
equation A =  r2. With each positive number r there is
associated one value of A, and we say that A is a
function of r.

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Functions and Their Representations
B. The human population of the world P depends on the
time t. The table gives estimates of the world
population P (t) at time t, for certain years.

For instance,
P(1950)  2,560,000,000
But for each value of the time t
there is a corresponding value
of P, and we say that P is a
function of t.

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Functions and Their Representations
Both examples describes a rule whereby, given a number
(r, t), another number (A, P) is assigned. In each case we
say that the second number is a function of the first
number.

We usually consider functions for which the sets D and E

are sets of real numbers. The set D is called the domain of
the function. The number f (x) is the value of f at x and is
read “ f of x.”
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Functions and Their Representations
The range of f is the set of all possible values of f (x) as x
varies throughout the domain.

A symbol that represents an arbitrary number in the domain

of a function f is called an independent variable.

A symbol that represents a number in the range of f is

called a dependent variable.

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Functions and Their Representations
It’s helpful to think of a function as a machine (see Figure 2).

Machine diagram for a function ƒ

Figure 2

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Functions and Their Representations
If x is in the domain of the function f, then when x enters
the machine, it’s accepted as an input and the machine
produces an output f (x) according to the rule of the
function.

Thus we can think of the domain as the set of all possible

inputs and the range as the set of all possible outputs.

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Functions and Their Representations
Another way to picture a function is by an arrow diagram
as in Figure 3.

Arrow diagram for ƒ

Figure 3

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Functions and Their Representations
Each arrow connects an element of D to an element of E.
The arrow indicates that f (x) is associated with x, f (a) is
associated with a, and so on.

The most common method for visualizing a function is its

graph. If f is a function with domain D, then its graph is the
set of ordered pairs

The graph of a function f gives us a useful picture of the

behavior or “life history” of a function.
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Functions and Their Representations
Since the y-coordinate of any point (x, y) on the graph is
y = f (x), we can read the value of f (x) from the graph as
being the height of the graph above the point x.
(See Figure 4.)

Figure 4
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Functions and Their Representations
The graph of f also allows us to picture the domain of f on
the x-axis and its range on the y-axis as in Figure 5.

Figure 5

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Example 1
The graph of a function f is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6

(a) Find the values of f (1) and f (5).

(b) What are the domain and range of f ?
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Example 1 – Solution
(a) We see from Figure 6 that the point (1, 3) lies on the
graph of f, so the value of f at 1 is f (1) = 3. (In other
words, the point on the graph that lies above x = 1 is 3
units above the x-axis.)

When x = 5, the graph lies about 0.7 unit below the

x-axis, so we estimate that f (5)  –0.7.

(b) We see that f (x) is defined when 0  x  7, so the

domain of f is the closed interval [0, 7]. Notice that f
takes on all values from –2 to 4, so the range of f is

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Representations of Functions

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Representations of Functions
There are four possible ways to represent a function:

• verbally (by a description in words)

• visually (by a graph)

• numerically (by a table of values)

• algebraically (by an explicit formula)

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Representations of Functions
If a single function can be represented in all four ways, it is
often useful to go from one representation to another to gain
additional insight into the function.

But certain functions are described more naturally by one

method than by another.

With this in mind, let’s reexamine the two situations that we

considered at the beginning of this section.

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Representations of Functions
A. The most useful representation of the area of a circle as
a function of its radius is probably the algebraic formula
A (r) =  r2, though it is possible to compile a table of values
or to sketch a graph (half a parabola).

Because a circle has to have a positive radius, the

domain is and the range is also .

B. We are given a description of the function in words:

P (t) is the human population of the world at time t.

Let’s measure t so that t = 0 corresponds to the year

1900.
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Representations of Functions
The table of values of world population provides a
convenient representation of this function.

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Representations of Functions
If we plot these values, we get the graph (called a scatter

plot) in Figure 7.

Scatter plot of data points for population growth

Figure 7
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Representations of Functions
It is possible to find an expression for a function that
approximates P (t), we could use a graphing calculator
with exponential regression capabilities to obtain the
approximation

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Representations of Functions
Figure 8 shows that it is a reasonably good “fit.” The
function f is called a mathematical model for population

growth.

Graph of a mathematical model for population growth

Figure 8
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Representations of Functions
In other words, it is a function with an explicit formula
that approximates the behavior of our given function.

The function P is typical of the functions that arise

whenever we attempt to apply calculus to the real world.

We start with a verbal description of a function. Then we

may be able to construct a table of values of the
function,
perhaps from instrument readings in a scientific
experiment.

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Example 2
When you turn on a hot-water faucet, the temperature T of
the water depends on how long the water has been running.
Draw a rough graph of T as a function of the time t that has
elapsed since the faucet was turned on.

Solution:
The initial temperature of the running water is close to room
temperature because the water has been sitting in the pipes.

When the water from the hot water tank starts flowing from
the faucet, T increases quickly.
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Example 2 – Solution cont’d

In the next phase, T is constant at the temperature of the

heated water in the tank. When the tank is drained, T
decreases to the temperature of the water supply.

This enables us to make the rough sketch of T as a

function of t in Figure 9.

Figure 9
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Representations of Functions
The graph of a function is a curve in the xy-plane. But the
question arises: Which curves in the xy-plane are graphs of
functions? This is answered by the following test.

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Representations of Functions
The reason for the truth of the Vertical Line Test can be
seen in Figure 10.

Figure 10

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Representations of Functions
If each vertical line x = a intersects a curve only once, at
(a, b), then exactly one functional value is defined by
f (a) = b.

But if a line x = a intersects the curve twice, at (a, b) and

(a, c), then the curve can’t represent a function because a
function can’t assign two different values to a.

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Piecewise Defined Functions

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Piecewise Defined Functions
The absolute value of a number a, denoted by , is the
distance from a to 0 on the real number line.

Distances are always positive or 0, so we have

for every number a

For example,

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Piecewise Defined Functions
In general, we have

(Remember that if a is negative, then –a is positive.)

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Example 5
Sketch the graph of the absolute value function

Solution:
From the preceding discussion we know that

Remember that a function is a rule.

For this particular function the rule is the following: First

look at the value of the input x. If it happens that x  0 then
value of f (x) is x. On the other hand, if x < 0, then the value
of f (x) is –x. 33
Example 5 – Solution cont’d

We see that the graph of f coincides with the line y = x to

the right of the y-axis and coincides with the line y = –x to
the left of the y-axis (see Figure 12).

Figure 12

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Example 6
Consider C (w) be a cost of mailing a large envelope with
weight w. In effect, this is a piecewise defined function
because, from the table of values below, we have

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Example 6 cont’d

The graph is shown in Figure 13. You can see why

functions similar to this one are called step functions—
they jump from one value to the next.

Figure 13
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Symmetry

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Symmetry
If a function f satisfies f (–x) = f (x) for every number x in its
domain, then f is called an even function.

For instance, the function f (x) = x2 is even because

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Symmetry
The geometric significance of an even function is that its
graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis (see Figure 14).

An even function

Figure 14
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Symmetry
This means that if we have plotted the graph of f for x  0,
we obtain the entire graph simply by reflecting this portion
about the y-axis.

If f satisfies f (–x) = –f (x) for every number x in its domain,

then f is called an odd function.

For example, the function f (x) = x3 is odd because

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Symmetry
The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin
(see Figure 15). If we already have the graph of f for x  0,
we can obtain the entire graph by rotating this portion
through 180 about the origin.

An odd function

Figure 15
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Example 7
Determine whether each of the following functions is even,
odd, or neither even nor odd.

(a)

(b)

(c)

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Example 7 – Solution
(a)

Therefore f is an odd function.

(b)

So g is even. 43
Example 7 – Solution cont’d

(c)

Since and , we conclude that

h
is neither even nor odd.

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Symmetry
The graphs of the functions in Example 7 are shown in
Figure 16. Notice that the graph of h is symmetric neither
about the y-axis nor about the origin.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 16
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Increasing and Decreasing
Functions

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Increasing and Decreasing Functions
The graph shown in Figure 17 rises from A to B, falls from
B to C, and rises again from C to D.

Figure 17
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Increasing and Decreasing Functions
The function f is said to be increasing on the interval [a, b],
decreasing on [b, c], and increasing again on [c, d].

Notice that if x1 and x2 are any two numbers between a and

b with x1 < x2, then f (x1) < f (x2). We use this as the defining
property of an increasing function.

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Increasing and Decreasing Functions
In the definition of an increasing function it is important to
realize that the inequality f (x1) < f (x2) must be satisfied for
every pair of numbers x1 and x2 in I with x1 < x2.

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1.3 The Limit of a Function

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Example 1
Suppose that a ball is dropped from the upper observation
deck of the CN Tower in Toronto, 450 m above the ground.
Find the velocity of the ball after 5 seconds.

Solution:
Through experiments carried out four centuries ago, Galileo
discovered that the distance fallen by any freely falling body
is proportional to the square of the time it has been falling.
(This model for free fall neglects air resistance.)

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Example 1 – Solution cont’d

If the distance fallen after t seconds is denoted by s(t) and

measured in meters, then Galileo’s law is expressed by the
equation
s (t) = 4.9t 2

The difficulty in finding the velocity after 5 s is that we are

dealing with a single instant of time (t = 5), so no time
interval is involved.

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Example 1 – Solution cont’d

However, we can approximate the desired quantity by

computing the average velocity over the brief time interval
of a tenth of a second from t = 5 to t = 5.1:

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Example 1 – Solution cont’d

The table shows the results of similar calculations of the average

velocity over successively smaller time periods.

It appears that as we shorten the time period, the average velocity

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is becoming closer to 49 m/s.
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

The instantaneous velocity when t = 5 is defined to be

the limiting value of these average velocities over shorter
and shorter time periods that start at t = 5.

Thus the (instantaneous) velocity after 5 s is

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Intuitive Definition of a Limit

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Intuitive Definition of a Limit
In general, we use the following notation.

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Intuitive Definition of a Limit
The values of f(x) tend to get closer and closer to the
number L as x gets closer and closer to the number a (from
either side of a) but x  a.

Notice the phrase “but x  a” in the definition of limit. This

means that in finding the limit of f (x) as x approaches, we
never consider x = a.

In fact, f (x) need not even be defined when x = a.

The only thing that matters is how f is defined near a.

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Example 2
Guess the value of

Solution:
Notice that the function is not
defined when x = 1, but that doesn’t matter because the
definition of says that we consider values of x
that are close to a but not equal to a.

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Example 2 – Solution cont’d

The tables below give values of f (x) (correct to six decimal

places) for values of x that approach 1
(but are not equal to 1).

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Example 2 – Solution cont’d

On the basis of the values in the tables, we make the

guess that

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Example 4
Guess the value of

Solution:
The function is not defined when x = 0.

Using a calculator (and remembering that, if , sin x

means the sine of the angle whose radian measure is ), we
construct the table of values correct to eight decimal
places.

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Example 4 – Solution cont’d

From the table below and the graph in Figure 6 we guess

that

Figure 6
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Example 6
The Heaviside function H is defined by

[This function is named after the electrical engineer Oliver

Heaviside (1850–1925) and can be used to describe an
electric current that is switched on at time t = 0.]

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Example 6 cont’d

Its graph is shown in Figure 8.

As t approaches 0 from
the left, H(t) approaches 0.
Figure 8

As t approaches 0 from the right, H(t) approaches 1. There

is no single number that H(t) approaches as t approaches
0.

Therefore does not exist.

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One-sided Limits

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One-sided Limits
We noticed in Example 6 that H(t) approaches 0 as t
approaches 0 from the left and H(t) approaches 1 as t
approaches 0 from the right.

We indicate this situation symbolically by writing

The symbol indicates that we consider only

values of t that are less than 0. Likewise, indicates
that we consider only values of t that are greater than 0.
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One-sided Limits

Notice that Definition 2 differs from Definition 1 only in that

we require x to be less than a.
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One-sided Limits
Similarly, if we require that x be greater than a, we get “the
right-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a is equal to L”
and we write

Thus the symbol means that we consider only

x > a.

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One-sided Limits
These definitions are illustrated in Figure 9.

(a) (b)

Figure 9

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One-sided Limits
By comparing Definition l with the definitions of one-sided
limits, we see that the following is true.

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Example 7
The graph of a function g is shown in Figure 10. Use it to
state the values (if they exist) of the following:

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 10 72
Example 7 – Solution
From the graph we see that the values of g(x) approach 3
as x approaches 2 from the left, but they approach 1 as x
approaches 2 from the right.
Therefore

(a) and (b)

(c) Since the left and right limits are different, we conclude
from that does not exist.

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Example 7 – Solution cont’d

The graph also shows that

(d) and (e)

(f) This time the left and right limits are the same and so,
by , we have

Despite this fact, notice that g(5)  2.

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Precise Definition of a Limit

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Precise Definition of a Limit
We want to express, in a quantitative manner, that f (x) can
be made arbitrarily close to L by taking x to be sufficiently
close to a (but x  a).

This means that f (x) can be made to lie within any

preassigned distance from L (traditionally denoted by ε, the
Greek letter epsilon) by requiring that x be within a
specified distance  (the Greek letter delta) from a.

That is, Notice

that we can stipulate that x  a by writing

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Precise Definition of a Limit
The resulting precise definition of a limit is as follows.

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Precise Definition of a Limit
Definition 4 is illustrated in Figures 12 –14.

If a number ε > 0 is given, then we draw the horizontal lines

and the graph of f. (See Figure

12.)

Figure 12
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Precise Definition of a Limit
If then we can find a number  > 0 such
that if we restrict x to lie in the interval and
take
x  a, then the curve y = f (x) lies between the lines
(See Figure 13.) You can see that
if such a  has been found, then any smaller  will also
work.

Figure 13 79
Precise Definition of a Limit
It’s important to realize that the process illustrated in
Figures 12 and 13 must work for every positive number ε,
no matter how small it is chosen.

Figure 12 Figure 13

80
Precise Definition of a Limit
Figure 14 shows that if a smaller ε is chosen, then a
smaller  may be required.

Figure 14

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Example 9
Prove that

Solution:
Let ε be a given positive number. According to Definition 4
with a = 3 and L = 7, we need to find a number  such that

Therefore we want:

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Example 9 – Solution cont’d

Note that
So let’s choose

We can then write the following:

Therefore, by the definition of a limit,

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