MA Leadership in Education

7511ELED Learning At Masters Level

 Session outline
Pre-session activity and discussion

Content coverage

Break

Content coverage

Assignment discussion/Post-session activity

Recap of the session; Q&A

 The structure of the research

1 Introduction to topic/creating context

2 Developing research aim/ question/objectives
3 Literature review
4 Methodology
5 Findings of the research
6 Critical analysis/argumentation/synthesis
7 Conclusion/Recommendations
8 References/Appendix
Today’s Literature
agenda review

How to source
information
 10 1. I need to start with my research keywords

step 2. I will confirm my research questions - What, Why ?

3. I will confirm my research objectives
research 4. I will justify my research questions with the Literature
breakdo Review

wn 5. This will take me to my research philosophy and will

help me choose a research methodology
6. I will look at the ethical considerations
7. I will collect my data
8. I will analyse and present my findings
9. I will conclude my research and provide
recommendations
10. HAVE I CONTRIBUTED TO EXISTING KNOWLEDGE ?
Why Review Literature?
• To conduct a ‘preliminary’ search of existing material
• To organize valuable ideas and findings
• Explain how your research fits into the context of what is
already known
• To identify other research that may be in progress
• To generate research ideas
• To provide insights into strategies and techniques
appropriate to your research objectives
• To discover recommendations for further research
• To develop a critical perspective
 Purpose of a literature
review
Provide a historical background for your research
A
literature Give an overview of the current context in which your research is situated

review Include a discussion of the relevant theories and concepts which underpin your
should: research
Introduce relevant terminology and provide definitions to clarify how terms are
being used in the context of your own work
Describe/critically analyze related research in the field and show how your work
extends or challenges this
Provide supporting evidence for a problem or issue that your research is
addressing, thereby underlining its significance
(Ridley, 2012: 24)
Purpose of a literature review
Degree and Function and format of the literature review in
research product research at these levels
Undergraduate Essentially descriptive, topic focused; mostly indicative
of main, current sources on the topic.
Analysis of topic in terms of justification.
Postgraduate Analytical and summative, covering methodological
Taught issues, research techniques and topics.
Possibly two literature-based chapters/sections, one
on methodological issues and another on theoretical
issues.
Postgraduate Analytical synthesis, covering all known literature on
Research the problem, often including that in other languages.
High level of conceptual thinking within and across
theories. Depth and breadth of discussion on relevant
philosophical traditions and ways in which they relate
to the problem.

(Hart, 1998 in Ridley, 2012: 24)

 Purpose of a literature review

Questions a literature review should answer:

Why is my subject important/significant?
Who else thinks it's important/significant?
Who has worked on this topic before?
Who has done research similar to what I'm undertaking?
What can I adapt from past research to guide/influence my study?
What impact will my study have on research?
What are the gaps in the research?
What specific question will I answer?
(Murray, 2006)
 Questions to ask?

 What do I know about this topic/study?

 What theory/conceptual
underpinnings/models/frameworks are available to
me?
 What theory is most suitable?
 Is this theory proved in practice?
 What other theories are relevant to this practice?
 How can I apply these in practice i.e. my study?
 • Next, it may be useful to ask some more
questions to map out what you know and don't
How do I know.
identify • 'Cube it' (Cowan and Cowan, 1980) may come in
handy here. It is a technique that allows you to
what I know explore a topic by asking yourself the following 6
questions:
and don't • Describe the topic—what is it?
know? • Compare it—what is it like or unlike?
• Associate it—what does it make you think of?
• Analyse it—what parts is it made of?
• Apply it—how can it be used?
• Argue for and against it—how can you support or
oppose it?

Source: Cowan, G, and Cowan, E. 1980. Writing.

New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.
After you consider the questions from the previous
slide, try writing sentences that start as per below.

This topic is important because ...

The important aspects of this topic are ...

The part of this topic I am most interested in is ...

When I am finished writing about this topic, I want

to have said ...
Critical research: from
reading to understanding

You are aiming to:

• Identify trends, themes, and categories within the
literature
• Identify gaps in the literature
• Identify areas where further research is required
• Synthesise and build a comprehensive map of the
literature (to establish the context of your research!)

(Booth, Sutton, & Papaionnou, 2016)

 Key Word Search

 Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question.

 Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in and list any synonyms and related terms.
 Look for review articles
 Keep a record

Research question example

What is the impact of social media on body image among Generation Z?
Keywords examples
• Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
• Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
• Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth
The Literature Review Process
Categories of Literature Sources
 • When you find a source that looks potentially
useful, it's crucial that you evaluate it. Not all
sources you find can be trusted or sometimes
Evaluatin they are not academically credible or
appropriate. In order to find out how relevant
g sources and usable the selected text is, you need to
interrogate it by asking a few questions.
• The questions can be about such aspects as:
• coverage, relevance, purpose
• authority,
• currency,
• objectivity,
• accuracy,
• appearance.
What questions can you think
of that would help you
unpack the details of each
criterion?

• Coverage, relevance, purpose

• Why has this work been written?
• Who is the audience and what is the message?
• What is the argument?
• What is the context?
• What type of text is it? A research paper, review
etc.?
• Authority
• Who is the author?
• What are her/his credentials? Are they visible?
 Focused reading

• Once you have decided to read the text, there are

certain things that you could do prior to reading:
• Clarify your purpose - What do you hope to gain by
reading this text?
• Ask questions - What specific questions are you hoping
the text can help you to answer?
• Note bibliographic information - Ensure you have all the
bibliographic details, when you take notes. This is
particularly important when you have a long reading list
and take notes on several texts.
• Ensuring you know why you are reading and what you
intend to achieve may help you read in a more focused
way. How do you proceed? Do you read the whole text
carefully now? Why (not)?
 Content of the
Critical Review
• Include key academic theories
• Demonstrate current knowledge of the area
• Use clear referencing for the reader to find the original
cited publications
• Acknowledge the research of others
 Critical research and using
evidence: synthesis
“Should national rail networks be privatised?”
Not for profit

Smith & West

(2012) Anderson
(2015)
Yes Lee No
(2014)
Singh
Wolff
(2010)
(2016)

Your position

For profit
 Critical research and using
evidence: synthesis cont.

“Should national rail networks be privatised?”

Not for profit

Smith & West

(2012) Anderson
(2015)
Yes Lee No
(2014)
Singh
Wolff
(2010)
(2016)
Your position

For profit
Structuring a
literature review

• Remember: literature reviews need an

introduction too!
• Main themes? Main ideas? Main
researchers?

• Organising principles:
• Chronological (but not a list!)
• Thematic
• By use of research methodology
• By sector

23
Structuring a
literature review
• Discuss specific areas of research
• Emphasise more recent developments
• Synthesise and interpret (grouping)
• Expose common/divergent/emerging themes
• Include any background relevant to the audience

• You are not detailing an annotated bibliography

• Develop a critical, thematic approach to your review
• Consider the ways in which research moves and changes in your field
• How can you best categorise those changes?
 Writing about
literature
Define your topic(s)
• Begin your review by detailing/defining the topics covered in your review
• Tell your reader the core concepts they'll be keeping in mind

Justify selection of literature/omissions

• For what [specific reasons related to your research question] have you selected
these previous studies/theories?
• You didn't miss things because you're lazy – you purposefully omitted them
because of [specific reasons related to your research question]

Explain the structure of the review

• Why do you focus on these themes/categories? And why do you focus on them
in this order/grouping?

25
 Define
‘The purpose of this chapter is to review the literature on conduct problems
and callous unemotional (CU) traits among youth in schools and how teachers
perceive and respond to students who display these behaviors.
Conduct problems refer to behaviors that violate social norms or the rights of
others including physical or verbal aggression, theft, lying, arguing with

Writing about
authority figures, defiance, violation of rules, property destruction, fire setting,
and truancy.

literature
All of these behaviors are problematic to teachers and can disrupt the
classroom and educational setting.
Conduct problems are seen in a number of disorders as stated in the DSM-5,
namely Conduct Disorder (CD), Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD), and other
or un-specified disruptive and impulse-control disorders, although CU traits are
most commonly associated with CD.
For the purposes of this study, conduct problems are conceptualized as a series
of behavioral symptoms that may fall into Conduct Disorder, Oppositional
Defiant Disorder, or other or un-specified disruptive and impulse control
disorders. Because ODD and CD make up a large portion of individuals who Explain
display CU traits, these two disorders are discussed in more detail below.
Further, due to the limited literature pertaining to CU traits in schools, this
chapter will focus on research in the area of conduct or behavioral problems in
general and in schools, callous unemotional traits in general, and research Justify
surrounding individuals with CU traits.’
Peet, C.L., 2018. Teacher Perceptions of Students with Conduct Problems with and Without
Callous Unemotional Traits (PhD), University of South Florida.
 Define
‘The stage in the life course immediately following adolescence but
preceding the job and relationship stability of adulthood typically is referred
to as emerging adulthood by developmental psychologists (Arnett, 2000).
Sociologists and life course scholars generally tend to conceptualize these
Writing about ages in terms of a transition to adulthood rather than a specific stage of
development (Furstenberg, et al., 2004).

literature Ibetween
use the term emerging adulthood in this thesis to emphasize the interplay
independence and interdependence needs at these ages (see
Norona, Olmstead, & Welsh, 2017) as these may guide the character of
romantic relationships and help to explain why certain dynamics influence
well-being more than others.
However, it is important to recognize that these characterizations of this
period are not universal, and life transitions vary by socio-economic
conditions and historical positioning—and so it would be imprecise to
represent emerging adulthood as a ubiquitous developmental stage (Côté,
2014).’

Sevareid, E.E., 2019. Dimensions of Cohabiting Relationships in Emerging Adulthood: Implications

for Psychological Well-Being (MA), Bowling Green State University.
 Writing about literature Explain

‘In order to account for these caveats, this research is guided by a life course theoretical framework.
The life course perspective recognizes the influence of cohort differences and socioeconomic diversity in the
transition to adulthood, which helps frame this work by acknowledging social differences between men and
women as to the significance of romantic relationships (and the emotions involved) on well-being.
More generally, life course perspectives centralize the influence and reciprocity between social convoys
(cohabiting relationships, here) and trajectories of maturity and development (Elder, Johnson, & Crosnoe, 2003;
Umberson, Crosnoe, & Reczek, 2010).
Therefore, a life course view of emerging adulthood contrasts with a developmental perspective by
understanding romantic involvement as varying between individuals and groups in their significance for
maturation. Such a view recognizes the larger social contexts through which these relationships and processes
unfold.’

Justify

(Sevareid, 2019)
28
 Engaging your sources:
sources you agree with
Offer additional support
You have new evidence to support a source’s claim
1. Source supports a claim with old evidence, but maybe you can offer
new evidence.
2. Source supports a claim with weak evidence, but maybe you can offer
stronger evidence.

‘Smith’s (2002) paper uses anecdotal evidence to show that the Alamo
For more examples
story
see: Essay had mythic status beyond Texas, but a later
Writing study by Jones (2015)
offered
Classes, empirical evidence to support this view.’
Session 2.2
(Turabian, 2013)
 Engaging your sources:
sources you agree with
Confirming unsupported claims
You can prove something that a source has only assumed or speculated.
1. Source only speculates that X might be true, but maybe you can
offer evidence to show that it definitely is.
2. Source assumes that X is true, but maybe you can prove it.

‘Smith (2002) recommended visualization to improve sports

performance,
For more examples but a later study by Jones (2015) of the mental activities
of athletes
see: Essay Writing confirmed the validity of this advice.’
Classes, Session 2.2
30
 Writing about literature:
summary
Your literature review must:
• Provide an overview and a critical evaluation of a body of literature
relating to a research topic or a research problem
• Analyse a body of literature in order to classify it by themes or
categories, rather than simply discussing individual works one after
another
• Present the research and ideas of the field rather than each individual
work or author by itself

31
 •Prompts for initial writing about the literature:
• What do I know about my research topic?
Writing • What I am looking for in the literature is…

about • What are the schools of thought in the literature?

• The ‘great debates’ in my area are…
literature: •(Murray, 2006)
initial
prompts
Common Mistakes During the Write-up

Description versus Analysis

Source 1 • This person says this.

Source 2 • This person says this.

Source 3 • This person says this.

Source 4 • This person says this.

The end
 •
• a
Source 1 says this
Source 2 says something similar
Topic 1 • Source 3 disagrees completely
• It would appear that…

• Source 2 says
• Source 3 says
Topic 2 • Many sources say…
• The general consensus seems to be…

• Source 4 and 5 say

Topic 3 • These seem to be similar to..
• There seems to be no similarity…

• The major trends would appear to be

General • Those areas that need to be explored more
Conclusions would be…
The Key to a Critical Literature Review

Demonstrate Demonstrate
material
that you have read, understood and evaluated your

Link Link the different ideas to form a cohesive and coherent argument

Make clear connections to your research objectives and the

Make subsequent empirical material
 Common mistakes in literature reviews

1. Not relating findings of the literature review to researcher's own contribution

2. does not take sufficient time to define the best descriptors and identify the best sources to use in
review literature related to one’s topic;
3. relies on secondary sources rather than on primary sources in reviewing the literature;
4. uncritically accepts another researcher’s findings and interpretations as valid, rather than
examining critically all aspects of the research design and analysis;
5. does not report the search procedures that were used in the literature review;
6. reports isolated statistical results rather than synthesizing them meta-analytic methods;
7. does not consider contrary findings and alternative interpretations in synthesizing quantitative
literature.
 •There is one component in this module. In
order to pass the module, you must achieve an
overall mark of 50% or more on the component..

Assignment •Component: Prepare a presentation

summarising the methods and findings of your
brief literature review. The presentation should be
supported by slide notes (2500 words),
excluding a reference list.
•The presentation should include:
 Reasons for choosing the topic
 Research question and methods
 Main findings of the literature review and the
process involved
 Critical reflection
 References
• Biggam, John,
Succeeding with your masters dissertation: a step-by-step handbook, 4th edn
(London: Open University Press, McGraw-Hill Education, 2017)
• Cottrell, Stella, Dissertations and Research Projects: a Step by Step Guide
(Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014)
• Murray, Rowena, How to Write a Thesis, 2nd edn (Maidenhead: Open
University Press, 2006)
• Swales, John M. & Christine B. Feak,
Academic writing for graduate students: essential tasks and skills, 2nd edn
(Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 2004)
• White, Patrick, Developing Research Questions: a Guide for Social Scientists
(Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009)