Support Vector Machines:

Theory, Implementation, and

Applications
Presented By:
Sachin 2022U IT3065

Praatham Sharma 2022UIT3068

Ishan Singh 2022UIT3072

A m j a d I m ra n 2022U IT3079

S a c h i n S i m a u l i ya 2022UIT3151

Presented to:

Ms. S h u b h r a G oya l M a m
Overview/Agenda
• I n t r o d u c ti o n to S u p p o r t Ve c t o r M a c h i n e s
• T h e o re ti c a l F o u n d a ti o n s
• L i n e a r a n d N o n - linear C l a s s i fi cati on
• Kernel Methods
• M a t h e m a ti c a l F r a m e w o r k
• I m p l e m e n t a ti o n A p p r o a c h e s
• A p p l i c a ti o n s a c r o s s d o m a i n s
• A d v a n c e d To p i c s a n d E x t e n s i o n s
• C a s e S t u d i e s a n d P ra c ti c a l C o n s i d e ra ti o n s

L e a r n i n g O b j ec ti ves : U n d e r s t a n d i n g S V M p ri nci p l es , m a t h e m a ti c a l form ul ati on, i m p l e m e n t a ti o n , a n d p ra c ti c a l u s e

cases.
Introduction to Support
Vector Machines
D e v e l o p e d b y V l a d i m i r Va p n i k a n d c o l l e a g u e s at AT & T B ell
L a b o ra t o r i e s (1992-1995). E v o l v e d f r o m S tati sti c a l L e a r n i n g Theory.
S V M is a s u p e r v i s e d m a c h i n e l e a r n i n g a l g o r i t h m t h a t fi n d s a n
o p ti m a l h y p e r p l a n e to s e p a ra t e d a t a i nto d i sti n c t c l a s s e s . F o c u s o n
m a x i m i z i n g t h e m a r g i n b e t w e e n c l a s s e s . Initi ally for b i n a r y
clas s ifi cati on, later ex te n d e d .
Fundamental Concept
At its core, t h e S u p p o r t Ve c t o r M a c h i n e (SVM) s e e k s to i d enti f y t h e
o p ti m a l h y p e r p l a n e t h a t m o s t eff e c ti ve l y s e p a ra t e s d a t a p o i nt s
i nto d i sti n c t c l a s s e s . T h i s h y p e r p l a n e is c h o s e n to m a x i m i z e t h e
m a r g i n — t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n itself a n d t h e n e a r e s t d a t a p o i nt s
f r o m e a c h cl as s . I n a n n - d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e , t h e h y p e r p l a n e is
d e fi n e d b y t h e e q u a ti o n w · x + b = 0, w h e r e w r e p r e s e n t s t h e
w e i g h t vector, x is t h e i n p u t vector, a n d b is t h e bias. Cl as s i fi cati on
is t h e n a c c o m p l i s h e d u s i n g t h e d e c i s i o n f u n c ti o n : f(x) = s i g n ( w · x +
b).
Key Terminology
S u p p o r t Vectors: Criti cal d a t a p o i n t s n e a r e s t to t h e s e p a ra ti n g hy p e r p l a n e , i n fl u e n c i n g its p o s i ti o n a n d orientati on.
Margin: T h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e h y p e r p l a n e a n d t h e c l o s e s t s u p p o r t vectors, i n d i c a ti n g cl assi fi cati on c o nfi d e n c e.
M a x i m u m M a rg i n H y p e r p l a n e (MMH): T h e o p ti m a l h y p e r p l a n e t h at m a x i m i z e s t h e m a r g i n , p r o v i d i n g t h e b e s t s e p a rati o n b e t w e e n classes.
D e c i s i o n B o u n d a r y : T h e hy p e r p l a n e t h at d i sti nctl y s e p a ra t e s d a t a p o i n t s of diff erent c l a s s e s , e n a b l i n g classifi cati on.

F e a t u r e S p a c e : T h e n - d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e r e p r e s e n ti n g all p o s s i b l e v a l u e s of t h e i n p u t features, w h e r e d a t a p o i n t s are plott ed.

SVM: Maximum margin separating hyperplane

How SVM Works - Basic Principles
S u p p o r t Ve c t o r M a c h i n e s ( SV M s ) fol l ow a s t r u c t u r e d p r o c e s s to a c h i e v e o p ti m a l d a t a clas sifi cati on. H e re ' s a c o n c i s e
o v e r v i e w of t h e k e y principles:

F e a t u r e S p a c e M a p p i n g : T h e i n p u t d a t a is t ra n s f o r m e d i nto a h i g h - d i m e n s i o n a l fe at u re s p a c e , e n a b l i n g t h e
r e p r e s e n t a ti o n of c o m p l e x re l a ti o n s h i p s w i t h i n t h e data.
H y p e r p l a n e Generati on : Multi ple p o te nti a l h y p e r p l a n e s a re c r e a t e d w i t h i n t h e fe at u re s p a c e , e a c h a c ti n g a s a
c a n d i d a t e d e c i s i o n b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n cl a s s es .
M a r g i n C a l c u l ati o n : F o r e a c h hy p e r p l a n e , t h e m a r g i n — t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e h y p e r p l a n e a n d t h e n e a r e s t d a t a
p o i n t s ( s u p p o r t ve c to rs ) f r o m e a c h c l a s s — is c o m p u t e d .
M a x i m u m M a r g i n S el e c ti o n : T h e a l g o r i t h m s e l e c t s t h e h y p e r p l a n e w i t h t h e l a r g e s t m a r g i n , k n o w n a s t h e M a x i m u m
M a r g i n H y p e r p l a n e (MMH), e n s u r i n g o p ti m a l c l a s s separati on.
S u p p o r t Ve c t o r Identi fi cati on: C ri ti ca l d a t a p o i n t s c l o s e s t to t h e MMH, c a l l e d s u p p o r t ve c to rs , a re identi fi ed. T h e s e
p o i n t s p l ay a pi vota l role i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e hy p e r p l a n e ' s p o s i ti o n a n d orientati on.
D e c i s i o n F u n c ti o n D erivati on: A d e c i s i o n f u n c ti o n is f o r m u l a t e d u s i n g t h e s u p p o r t v e c t o r s a n d MMH. T h i s f u n c ti o n
c l a s s i fi es n e w d a t a p o i n t s b y d e t e r m i n i n g w h i c h s i d e of t h e h y p e r p l a n e t h e y fall on.
Mathematical Representation
T h e fo u n d ati o n of a linear S u p p o r t Ve c t o r M a c h i n e lies in its p r e c i s e m a t h e m a ti c a l
formulati on, w h i c h c a n b e b r o ke n d o w n into t h e fo l l o w i n g c o m p o n e n t s :

P r i m a l Formulati on:
T h e o b j e c ti ve is to m i n i m i z e ½||w||², w h e r e w is t h e w e i g h t vector, w h i l e e n s u r i n g that
e ve r y d a t a p o i nt sati sfi es t h e c o n st ra i n t yi(w·xi + b) ≥ 1. T h i s g u a r a n t e e s n o t o n l y c o rrec t
cl assi fi cati on b u t al s o a m a r g i n of at l east 1, re s u l ti n g in a q u a d ra ti c o p ti m i zati o n p ro b l e m
t h at c a n b e s o l v e d u s i n g L a g r a n g i a n multi pliers.

L a g r a n g i a n Formulati on:
To s o l ve t h i s o p ti m i zati o n p ro b l e m , t h e L a g r a n g i a n f u n c ti o n is d e fi n e d as:
L ( w, b, α) = ½||w||² - Σi αi[yi(w·xi + b) - 1]
Here, αi r e p r e s e n t s t h e L a g r a n g i a n m ul ti p l i ers a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e a c h
constraint.

K a r u s h - K u h n - Tu c k e r ( K K T ) Conditi ons:
A p p l y i n g t h e K K T c o n d i ti o n s p ro v i d e s e s s e nti a l rel ati o n s h i ps for opti mality:
w = Σi αiyixi
Σi αiyi = 0
T h e s e e q u a ti o n s p l ay a c r u c i a l role in d e fi n i n g t h e o p ti m a l p arameters.

D e c i s i o n F u n c ti o n :
Finally, w i t h t h e o p ti m a l p a ra m e t e r s in h a n d , t h e d e c i s i o n f u n c ti o n f o r m u l a t e d for
c l a s s i f y i n g n e w d a t a p o i n t s is:
f(x) = sign(Σi αiyi(xi·x) + b)
T h i s f u n c ti o n a s s i g n s t h e c l a s s of a n e w d a t a p o i nt b a s e d o n w h i c h s i d e of t h e h y p e r p l a n e it
falls on.
Linear Separability
L i n e a r l y s e p a ra b l e d a t a c a n b e p e r fe c t l y d i v i d e d i nto d i sti n c t
c l a s s e s u s i n g a hy p e r p l a n e . T h i s d i v i s i o n r e q u i r e s s e l e c ti n g
p a ra m e t e r s w ( t h e w e i g h t ve c to r ) a n d b ( t h e b i a s ) s o t h a t for e ve r y
t ra i n i n g e x a m p l e (xi, yi), t h e c o n d i ti o n yi(w·xi + b) > 0 is m e t . T h e
c l a s s i fi c a ti o n b o u n d a r i e s a re e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e c a n o n i c a l
h y p e r p l a n e s d e fi n e d b y w · x + b = 1 a n d w · x + b = -1, w h i c h c r e a t e a
m a r g i n of w i d t h 2/||w||. A h a r d - m a r g i n S V M s e e k s to fi n d t h e
unique hyperplane that m axi m izes this margin, ensuring the most
r o b u s t s e p a ra ti o n b e t w e e n t h e cl a s s es .
Margin Maximization
T h e g o a l of m a r g i n m a x i m i z a ti o n is to a c h i e v e t h e w i d e s t p o s s i b l e
s e p a ra ti o n b e t w e e n c l a s s e s , q u a n ti fi e d a s 2/||w||, w h i l e e n s u r i n g all
d a t a p o i n t s m e e t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t yi(w·xi + b) ≥ 1. T h i s o b j e c ti v e is
m a t h e m a ti c a l l y e q u i va l e n t to m i n i m i z i n g (||w||²)/2 u n d e r t h e s a m e
c o n st ra i nt s , f o r m i n g a c o n v e x o p ti m i z a ti o n p r o b l e m w i t h a u n i q u e
soluti on. T h i s p r o b l e m is c o m m o n l y s o l v e d u s i n g t h e L a g r a n g i a n
formulati on:

L ( w, b, α) = ½||w||² - Σi αi[yi(w·xi + b) - 1],

w h e r e t h e αi r e p r e s e n t L a g r a n g e multi pliers. T h e d u a l fo rm u l ati o n

of t h i s o p ti m i z a ti o n p r o b l e m is t h e n e x p r e s s e d as:

Maxi m i ze: Σi αi - ½ Σi Σj αiαj yi yj (xi·xj),

s u b j e c t to t h e c o n s t ra i n t s t h a t αi ≥ 0 for all i a n d Σi αiyi = 0.

Non-Linearly Separable Data
I n m a n y p ra c ti c a l s c e n a r i o s , d a t a c a n n o t b e p e r fe c t l y d i v i d e d b y a s i m p l e linear
b o u n d a r y. A c l a s s i c illustrati on of t h i s c h a l l e n g e is t h e X O R p r o b l e m , w h e r e d a t a
p o i n t s f r o m di ff e re nt c l a s s e s a re s o intricately i n t e r w o v e n t h a t n o s i n g l e st ra i g ht
line or h y p e r p l a n e c a n eff e c ti ve l y s e p a ra t e t h e m .

To a d d r e s s n o n - linearly s e p a ra b l e data, S u p p o r t Ve c t o r M a c h i n e s ( SV M s) e m p l o y
t w o m a i n a p p r o a c h e s . T h e fi rst is t h e Soft -M a r g i n SVM, w h i c h i n t r o d u c e s s l a c k
variables. T h e s e s l a c k va r i a b l e s a l l o w for s o m e m i s c l a s s i fi c a ti o n s b y a c c e p ti n g
d a t a p o i n t s t h a t fall w i t h i n t h e m a r g i n or e v e n o n t h e w r o n g s i d e of t h e
hy p e r p l a n e . T h i s a p p r o a c h ca refu l l y b a l a n c e s t h e n e e d to m a x i m i z e t h e m a r g i n
w h i l e a l s o a c c o m m o d a ti n g errors i n classifi cati on.

T h e s e c o n d a p p r o a c h uti lizes K e r n e l M et h o d s . I n s t e a d of t r y i n g to fi n d a linear

b o u n d a r y i n t h e o r i g i n a l i n p u t s p a c e , ke r n e l f u n c ti o n s t ra n s fo r m t h e d a t a i nto a
h i g h e r - d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e w h e r e linear s e p a ra ti o n b e c o m e s feasible. Thi s
t ra n sfo r m a ti o n is p e r f o r m e d i mpl i c i t l y t h r o u g h t h e c o m p u t a ti o n of d o t p r o d u c t s
i n t h e n e w s p a c e , m a k i n g it u n n e c e s s a r y to ex pl i c i t l y c o m p u t e t h e h i g h -
d i m e n s i o n a l m a p p i n g . A s a result, t h e ke r n e l t r i c k e n a b l e s S V M s to m a n a g e
c o m p l e x , n o n - linear re l a ti o n s h i ps eff ecti vely.

To g e t h e r, t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s a l l o w S V M s to a d a p t to a w i d e r a n g e of real-wo r l d
p r o b l e m s w h e r e s i m p l e linear b o u n d a r i e s a re insuffi cient.
The Kernel Trick
T h e ke r n e l t r i c k is a m e t h o d t h a t a l l o w s u s to u s e linear m o d e l s to
s o l v e n o n - linear p r o b l e m s . It w o r k s b y i m p l i c i t l y m a p p i n g t h e
o r i g i n a l d a t a i nto a h i g h e r - d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e w h e r e a linear
s e p a ra ti o n is pos s i bl e. T h i s is a c h i e v e d u s i n g ke r n e l f uncti ons ,
w h i c h effi ciently c o m p u t e d o t p r o d u c t s i n t h i s t ra n s f o r m e d s p a c e
w i t h o u t expl i ci tl y p e r f o r m i n g t h e t ra n sfo r m ati o n . Mercer's
t h e o r e m p r o v i d e s t h e m a t h e m a ti c a l fo u n d a ti o n , s p e c i f y i n g t h e
c o n d i ti o n s t h a t a ke r n e l f u n c ti o n m u s t s ati sf y to e n s u r e t h a t it
c o r r e s p o n d s to a va l i d d o t p r o d u c t i n s o m e h i g h - d i m e n s i o n a l
space.
Kernel Types - Overview
L i n ea r, Po l y n o m i a l , R B F (Gaus s ian), a n d S i g m o i d ke r n e l s e a c h h a v e di ff erent c h a ra c te r i sti c s . C h o o s i n g t h e
a p p ro p r i a te ke r n e l d e p e n d s o n d a t a c h a ra c t e r i s ti c s a n d d o m a i n k n o w l e d g e . T h e s e ke r n e l s off er diff erent
a p p r o a c h e s to t ra n s f o r m i n g data, e n a b l i n g S V M s to t a c k l e a va ri ety of p ro b l e m s .

Linear Kernel Polynomial Kernel

K(x,y) = x·y. T h i s ke r n e l p e r f o r m s n o explicit K(x,y) = (γx·y + r)ᵈ. T h e p o l y n o m i a l ke r n e l i n t r o d u c e s

t ra n s fo r m a ti o n a n d is m o s t eff e c ti ve w h e n t h e d a t a is p o l y n o m i a l d e c i s i o n b o u n d a r i e s b y m a p p i n g d a t a into
a l re a d y linearly s e p a ra b l e . It is c o m p u t a ti o n a l l y a h i g h e r - d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e . It is c o nt ro l l e d b y
effi ci ent a n d s u i ta b l e for l a r g e d a t a s e t s w i t h m a n y p a ra m e t e r s s u c h a s γ ( g a m m a ) , r (coeffi cient), a n d d
features. ( d e gree ) , w h i c h i n fl u e n c e t h e fl exibility a n d c o m p l e x i t y
of t h e m o d e l .
RBF Kernel in Detail
T h e R a d i a l B a s i s F u n c ti o n ( R B F ) ke r n e l is d e fi n e d a s K(x,y) = ex p(- γ||x-
y||²), w h e r e γ > 0. It i mpl i c i tl y m a p s d a t a p o i n t s i nto a n infi nite-
d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e , a l l o w i n g for h i g h l y fl exible, n o n - linear d e c i s i o n
b o u n d a r i e s . In pra c ti c e , m o s t libraries defa ul t t h e g a m m a (γ) p a ra m e te r
to 1 d i v i d e d b y t h e n u m b e r of fe at u re s in t h e dataset.

Geometric Interpretation
T h e R B F ke r n e l m e a s u r e s t h e similarity b e t w e e n t w o p o i nt s
b a s e d o n their E u c l i d e a n d i sta n c e . S m a l l e r d i s t a n c e s resul t in
h i g h e r similarity s co re s , i n d i c a ti n g a s t r o n g e r i n fl u e n c e o n t he
d e c i s i o n bo unda r y.

Gamma Parameter (γ)

G a m m a (γ) c o nt ro l s t h e i n fl u e n c e ra d i u s of e a c h s u p p o r t vector. A
s m a l l e r g a m m a va l u e re s ul t s in a w i d e r i nfl uenc e, l e a d i n g to a
s m o o t h e r d e c i s i o n b o u n d a r y, w h e r e a s a l a rge r g a m m a va l ue
c r e a te s a m o r e c o m p l e x a n d po tenti a l l y overfi t mo de l .
Polynomial Kernel
M at h e m a ti c a l Fo r m u l ati o n : K(x,y) = (γx·y + r)ᵈ. F e a t u r e n o r m a l i zati o n is
o ft e n r e c o m m e n d e d . C a n b e m e m o r y intensive, e s p e c i a l l y for l a rge
data s et s . Eff e c ti v e for p r o b l e m s w h e r e fe at ure re l ati o ns hi ps c a n b e
e x p r e s s e d a s polyno mials.

Degree (d)
H i g h e r d e g r e e (d): E n a b l e s m o r e fl exible a n d c o m p l e x
d e c i s i o n b o u n d a r i e s b u t i n c r e a s e s t h e r i s k of overfi tti ng.

Scale (γ)
C o n t r o l s t h e i n fl u e n c e of e a c h d a t a point; a h i g h e r va l ue
c o r r e s p o n d s to a s t r o n g e r infl uence.

Coefficient (r)
A d d s a c o n s t a n t b i a s to t h e ke r n e l func ti o n, a ff e c ti n g t he
p o s i ti o n i n g of d e c i s i o n bo unda ri es.
Sigmoid Kernel
M a t h e m a ti c a l form ul ati on : K(x,y) = tanh(γx·y + r). I n s p i r e d b y n e u ra l n e t w o r k a c ti va ti o n f u n c ti o n s . General l y
u n d e r p e r f o r m s c o m p a r e d to R B F. S e n s i ti v e to fe a t u re s c a l i n g .

Scale (γ) Threshold (r)

C o n t r o l s t h e s c a l e of i n p u t data.
1 2 A ff e c t s t h e t h r e s h o l d shift .
Soft Margin Classification
T h e s oft m a r g i n a p p r o a c h p e r m i t s s o m e m i s c l a s s i fi c a ti o n s to e n h a n c e ge n e ra l i zati o n , b a l a n c i n g m a r g i n
m a x i m i z a ti o n a n d error m i n i m i z a ti o n u s i n g t h e r e g u l a r i z a ti o n p a ra m e t e r C.

Small C
1
W i d e r m a r g i n prioriti zed; m o r e errors tolerated.

Large C
2
C o r r e c t c l a s s i fi c a ti o n prioriti zed; n a r r o w e r m a r g i n .
SVM Algorithm Implementation
I m p l e m e n ti n g a n S V M a l g o r i t h m re q u i re s ca ref ul p re p a rati o n a n d
validati on. B e g i n b y s c a l i n g t h e fe at u re s of y o u r d a t a s e t to e n s u r e
o p ti m a l p e r fo r m a n c e . T h e n , d i v i d e t h e d a t a i nto d i sti n c t t ra i n i n g a n d
t e s ti n g sets. S e l e c t a n a p p ro p r i ate ke r n e l f u n c ti o n (e.g., R B F,
Po l y n o m i a l ) a n d initi alize its hy p e r p a ra m e te r s . Ev a l u a t e t h e m o d e l ' s
p e r f o r m a n c e u s i n g c r o s s - va li dati o n t e c h n i q u e s to fi ne-t u n e
hy p e r p a ra m e t e r s a n d p r e v e n t overfi tti ng.

Data Preprocessing

Model Training

Model Validation
Hyperparameter Tuning
K e y h y p e r p a ra m e t e r s to t u n e i n c l u d e C , K e r n e l type, γ, d, a n d r.
C o m m o n t u n i n g m e t h o d o l o g i e s a re G r i d S e a rc h , R a n d o m S e a rc h ,
a n d B a y e s i a n O p ti m i za ti o n . E m p l o y k- fold c r o s s - va l i d ati o n to
e n s u r e r o b u s t a n d reliable results.

Grid Search Random Search

A n e x h a u s ti v e s e a r c h th at A m o r e effi ci ent a p p r o a c h
sy s t e m a ti c a l l y ex p l o r e s all that randomly samples
s p e c i fi e d p a ra m e te r p a ra m e t e r c o m b i n a ti o n s
c o m b i n a ti o n s . f r o m d e fi n e d distributi ons.

Bayesian Optimization
A s e q u e n ti a l o p ti m i z a ti o n t e c h n i q u e t h a t u s e s a probabilisti c
m o d e l to g u i d e t h e s e a r c h for t h e b e s t hy p e r p a ra m e te rs .
Multi-Class Classification with SVM
S u p p o r t Ve c t o r M a c h i n e s a re f u n d a m e n t a l l y d e s i g n e d for b i n a r y classifi cati on. To t a c k l e m ulti - c l a s s p ro b l e m s , t w o c o m m o n s t ra t e g i e s a re e m p l o y e d : O n e - v s - R e s t (O v R ) a n d O n e - v s - O n e (OvO).

OvR (One-vs-Rest)
I n t h e O v R a p p ro a c h , w e t rain 'k' s e p a ra t e b i n a r y S V M classifi ers, w h e r e 'k' is t h e n u m b e r of c lasse s. E a c h classifi er is t ra i n e d to d i s ti n g u i s h o n e s p e c i fi c c la ss
a ga i n s t all t h e r e m a i n i n g classes.

1 2

OvO (One-vs-One)
T h e O v O s t r a t e g y i nvo l v e s t ra i n i n g a b i n a r y S V M classifi er for e v e r y p o s s i b l e pair of c la sse s. T h i s re sult s in a total of k ( k- 1)/2 classifi e rs b e i n g trained, off e rin g a
m o r e g r a n u l a r a p p r o a c h to m ulti - c l a s s discriminati on.
Support Vector Regression
(SVR) Explained
S V R a p p l i e s S V M p r i n c i p l e s to re g re s s i o n . It a i m s to fi n d a f u n c ti o n that
a p p r o x i m a t e s t h e t a r g e t va ri a bl e w i t h i n a m a r g i n of to l e ra n c e (ε). K e y
p a r a m e t e r s i n fl u e n c i n g t h i s a re t h e to l e ra n c e (ε) a n d t h e re gul a ri zati on
p a r a m e t e r (C).

ε
Insensitive Tube (ε)
D e fi n e s t h e w i d t h of t h e i n s e n s i ti ve tube.

C
Regularization (C)
C o n t ro l s t h e re g u l a r i zati o n st re n gt h .
Applications of Support Vector Machines
T h i s p re s e n t ati o n h i g h l i g h t s t h e w i d e - r a n g i n g a p p l i cati o n s of S u p p o r t Ve c t o r M a c h i n e s (SVMs). W e will d e l v e into s eve ra l ke y
a re a s w h e r e S V M s d e m o n s t r a t e s t r o n g p e r fo r m a n c e , s u c h a s i m a g e analysi s, m e d i c a l d i a g n o s i s , a n d f ra u d detecti on.
F u r t h e r m o re , w e will e x a m i n e t h e benefi ts, limitati ons, a n d p ra c ti c a l a s p e c t s of d e p l o y i n g S V M s eff ecti vely.
Application in Image Analysis
C o n s i d e r a c a s e s t u d y i n f a c e d ete c ti o n : A s l i d i n g w i n d o w a p p ro a c h ,
c o m b i n e d w i t h a n S V M classifi er, s c a n s i m a g e s . F e a t u r e p y ra m i d s
e n a b l e d e t e c ti o n at m u l ti p l e s ca l e s . To refi n e results, n o n - m a x i m u m
s u p p r e s s i o n e l i m i n a te s o v e r l a p p i n g d ete c ti o n s , e n s u r i n g o n l y t h e
m o s t a c c u r a t e f a c e d e t e c ti o n s a re retained.

S u p p o r t Ve c t o r M a c h i n e s a re w i d e l y u s e d i n i m a g e classifi cati on.

K e y s t e p s i n c l u d e e x t ra c ti n g fe a t u re s u s i n g m e t h o d s l i ke H O G , SIFT,
L B P, or d e e p fe a t u re s f r o m C N N s . D i m e n s i o n a l i t y re d u c ti o n , o ft e n
a c h i e v e d w i t h P C A or t-S N E , o p ti m i ze s p e r fo r m a n c e . I m a g e
cl a s s i fi cati on m o d e l s a re e v a l u a t e d u s i n g s p e c i fi c m e t r i c s to e n s u r e
a c c u ra c y.
Heart Disease Prediction
with SVMs
S u p p o r t Ve c t o r M a c h i n e s a re eff e c ti ve i n p r e d i c ti n g h e a r t di s ea s e,
a c h i e v i n g h i g h p e r f o r m a n c e o n b e n c h m a r k d a t a s e t s l i ke t h e
C l e v e l a n d H e a r t D i s e a s e d ata s et . K e y p r e d i c ti v e fe a t u re s i n c l u d e
p a ti e n t a g e , g e n d e r, c h e s t p a i n c h a ra c te r i sti c s , b l o o d p re s s u re , a n d
c h o l e ste ro l levels. S V M m o d e l s p r o v i d e a c c u r a t e d i a g n o s e s , a s
i n d i c a t e d b y t h e f o l l o w i n g p e r f o r m a n c e m etri cs :

Accuracy 84-86%

S ens i ti vi ty 80-85%

S p e c i fi ci t y 8 5 -8 8 %

A U C- R O C 0 . 8 8 - 0.91
Application in Credit Card Fraud Detection

S u p p o r t Ve c t o r M a c h i n e s a re h i g h l y eff e c ti ve i n c r e d i t c a r d f ra u d d e te c ti o n . D u e to t h e i m b a l a n c e d n a t u r e of t h e s e
d a ta s e t s , w h e r e f ra u d u l e n t t ra n s a c ti o n s a re s i g n i fi c a n t l y fe w e r t h a n l e g i ti m a te o n e s , a d v a n c e d s a m p l i n g
t e c h n i q u e s s u c h a s S M O T E ( S y n t h e ti c Minority O v e r- s a m p l i n g Te c h n i q u e ) a re o ft e n e m p l o y e d to b a l a n c e t h e c l a s s
distributi on. F e a t u r e e n g i n e e r i n g p l a y s a c r u c i a l role, w i t h ti m e - b a s e d fe a t u re s l i ke t ra n s a c ti o n f r e q u e n c y, r e c e n c y,
a n d ti m e of d a y b e i n g p a r ti c u l a r l y u s e f u l i n d i s ti n g u i s h i n g f ra u d u l e n t acti viti es.
Key Advantages of SVM
S V M s a re m e m o r y effi cient b e c a u s e t h e d e c i s i o n f u n c ti o n
relies so lely o n s u p p o r t vec to rs. T h e y a l so off er versati lity
t h r o u g h ke r n e l f unc ti o ns , w h i c h c a n b e c u s t o m i z e d to
a d d r e s s s p e c i fi c d o m a i n r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d i m p r o v e
a c c u ra c y.

S V M s e xc e l in h i g h - d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e s , eff ecti vely

m i ti g a ti n g t h e c u r s e of di me ns i o na l i t y. Their p e r fo r m a n c e
r e m a i n s r o b u s t e v e n a s t h e n u m b e r of d i m e n s i o n s
i nc re a s e s , m a k i n g t h e m ideal for c o m p l e x datasets.
Limitations of SVM

W h i l e p o we rf u l , S u p p o r t Ve c t o r M a c h i n e s h a v e l i m i tati o n s t h a t c a n i m p a c t their a p p l i c a b i l i t y i n c e r t a i n s cena ri os .

O n e s i g n i fi c a n t d r a w b a c k is c o m p u t a ti o n a l c o m p l ex i t y. T h e t ra i n i n g ti m e for S V M s c a n r a n g e f r o m O(n² ) to O(n³),
w h e r e n is t h e n u m b e r of d a t a points , m a k i n g t h e m l e s s s u i ta b l e for v e r y l a r g e d ata s e t s . A n o t h e r c h a l l e n g e lies in
ke r n e l s el ecti on. C h o o s i n g t h e r i g h t ke r n e l f u n c ti o n is criti cal for S V M p e r f o r m a n c e , b u t t h e r e is n o uni vers a l l y
s y s t e m a ti c m e t h o d to d e t e r m i n e t h e o p ti m a l ke r n e l for a g i v e n p ro b l e m . F u r t h e r m o r e , S V M s a re s e n s i ti ve to
h y p e r p a ra m e t e r t u n i n g . S m a l l c h a n g e s i n h y p e r p a ra m e t e r s c a n l e a d to s u b s t a n ti a l va ri ati o n s i n m o d e l
p e r f o r m a n c e , r e q u i r i n g c a ref u l a n d o ft e n c o m p u t a ti o n a l l y i n te n s i v e opti m izati on.
SVM vs Other ML Algorithms

C o m p a r e d to o t h e r m a c h i n e l e a r n i n g a l g o r i t h m s , S V M s h a v e d i sti n c t c h a ra c te r i sti c s . N e u ra l N e t w o r k s a re m o r e
s u i ta b l e for v e r y l a r g e d a t a s e t s a n d c o m p l e x p att e r n r e c o g n i ti o n ta s k s , w h i l e D e c i s i o n Tre e s p ro v i d e b ett er
interpretability. k- N e a re st N e i g h b o r s off ers a s i m p l e r i m p l e m e n t a ti o n w i t h n o t ra i n i n g ti me, b u t its p e r fo r m a n c e
d e g ra d e s in high-dimensional spaces.
A One-Class SVM
O n e - C l a s s S V M is a n u n s u p e r v i s e d l e a r n i n g t e c h n i q u e p ri m a r i l y e m p l o y e d for outlier d e te c ti o n . I n c o n t ra s t to
traditi onal SV M s , w h i c h n e c e s s i t a t e l a b e l e d d a t a for b o t h n o r m a l a n d a b n o r m a l i n s t a n c e s , O n e - C l a s s S V M re q u i re s
o n l y n o r m a l d a t a to l e a r n a b o u n d a r y t h a t c l o s e l y e n c o m p a s s e s t h e d a t a points, t h e r e b y eff ec ti ve l y i d e n ti f y i n g
a n o m a l i e s . T h i s c h a ra c te r i s ti c m a k e s it exc e p ti o n a l l y va l u a b l e i n s i t u ati o n s w h e r e a n o m a l i e s a re s c a r c e or w h e r e
o b t a i n i n g l a b e l e d e x a m p l e s is c h a l l e n g i n g .

T h e R a d i a l B a s i s F u n c ti o n ( R B F ) ke r n e l is f r e q u e n t l y fav o r e d for t h i s p u r p o s e d u e to its a d a p ta b i l i t y i n c a p t u r i n g

i nt r i c ate d a t a distributi ons . B y p r o j e c ti n g t h e i n p u t d a t a i nto a h i g h e r - d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e , t h e R B F ke r n e l e n a b l e s
t h e a l g o r i t h m to e st a b l i s h a m o r e p r e c i s e a n d a d a p t a b l e b o u n d a r y a r o u n d t h e n o r m a l d a t a points. O n e - C l a s s S V M
h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d w i d e s p r e a d uti lity i n va r i o u s a p p l i c ati o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e d e t e c ti o n of n e t w o r k intrusions,
i d e nti fi c ati o n of f ra u d u l e n t t ra n s a c ti o n s , a n d m o n i t o r i n g of m a c h i n e h e a l t h b y r e c o g n i z i n g a t y p i c a l patt erns.
Implementation in Python
S u p p o r t Ve c t o r M a c h i n e s c a n b e re a d i l y i m p l e m e n t e d i n P y t h o n u s i n g p o w e r f u l libraries l i ke S c i k i t- l e a r n a n d L I B S V M . T h e c o d e s n i p p e t
b e l o w d e m o n s t r a t e s a t y p i c a l s t r u c t u r e for s e tti n g u p a n d t ra i n i n g a n S V M m o d e l .

from sklearn.svm import S VC I m p o r t s t h e S u p p o r t Ve c t o r Cl a ssi fi er m o d e l

from sklearn.preprocessing import StandardScaler I m p o r t s t h e S t a n d a r d S c a l e r for fe at u re s c a l i n g
f r o m s k l e a r n . m o d e l _ s e l e c ti o n i m p o r t G r i d S e a rc h C V, train_test_split I m p o r t s tool s for h y p e r p a ra m e t e r t u n i n g a n d d a t a spl i tti ng
f r o m s k l e a r n . m e t r i c s i m p o r t classifi cati on_report I m p o r t s t h e f u n c ti o n to g e n e r a t e a c l a s s i fi cati o n report
Practical Considerations

W h e n w o r k i n g w i t h S u p p o r t Ve c t o r Ma c hi ne s , s eve ra l p ra c ti c a l c o n s i d e ra ti o n s c a n s i g n i fi ca nt l y i m p a c t m o d e l p e r fo r m a n c e
a n d effi ciency. F e a t u r e s e l e c ti o n b e s t p ra c ti c e s i n c l u d e e m p l o y i n g fi lter m e t h o d s (e.g., s e l e c ti n g fe at u re s b a s e d o n stati sti ca l
tests), w ra p p e r m e t h o d s (e.g., u s i n g c r o s s - va li dati o n to e va l u ate fe at ure s ubs et s ), a n d e m b e d d e d m e t h o d s (e.g., L1
regularizati on). H a n d l i n g i m b a l a n c e d data s et s , w h e r e o n e c l a s s s i g n i fi ca nt l y o u t n u m b e r s t h e other, c a n b e a d d r e s s e d
t h r o u g h c l a s s w e i g h ti n g ( a d j u s ti n g t h e c o s t of m i s c l a s s i fi c ati o n for t h e m i n o r i t y c l a s s ) or r e s a m p l i n g t e c h n i q u e s
(o v e r s a m p l i n g t h e m i n o r i t y c l a s s or u n d e r s a m p l i n g t h e ma j o ri t y class). C o m p u t a ti o n a l o pti mi zati o ns , s u c h a s a p p r ox i m ate
ke r n e l m e t h o d s (e.g., N y s t r ö m m e t h o d s ) , a re c r u c i a l for s c a l i n g S V M s to l a r g e d a t a s e t s b y r e d u c i n g c o m p u t a ti o n a l
c o m p l ex i t y. Eff e c ti v e m e m o r y m a n a g e m e n t st rate g i e s , i n c l u d i n g u s i n g s p a r s e m a t r i c e s a n d o p ti m i z i n g d a t a sto ra ge , are a l so
i m p o r t a n t for h a n d l i n g l a rge - s c a l e S V M pro bl e ms .
Unlocking the Power of
SVMs: Advances and
Practical Guidance
T h i s p r e s e n t a ti o n p r o v i d e s a c o m p r e h e n s i v e o v e r v i e w of r e c e n t
p r o g r e s s a n d p r o v e n t e c h n i q u e s i n S u p p o r t Ve c t o r M a c h i n e s
(SVMs). K e y t o p i c s i n c l u d e t w i n SV M s , m u l ti p l e ke r n e l l earni ng ,
a n d d e e p ke r n e l l e a r n i n g , a l o n g w i t h p ra c ti c a l i m p l e m e n t a ti o n
st rate g i e s , i n s i g h tf u l c a s e st u d i es , a n d p r o m i s i n g a v e n u e s for
f u t u re explorati on.
Evolving SVM Architectures
Twin Support Vector Machines Multiple Kernel Learning Deep Kernel Learning
• U s e s t w o n o n - parallel • O p ti m a l l y c o m b i n e s d i ve rs e • I n t e g ra t e s d e e p n e u ra l
hyperplanes ke r n e l s n e t w o r k s w i t h ke r n e l s
• Fa s t e r t ra i n i n g d u e to s m a l l e r • L e a r n s a d a p ti v e ke r n e l • L e a r n s fe at u re re p re s e nta ti o n s
QPPs weights for S V M
• • E n h a n c e s performance with •
Eff e c ti v e for n o n - linear O p ti m i z e s fe at u re l e a r n i n g e n d -
cl a s s i fi cati on va r i e d feat u re s to-e n d
SVM Adaptations for
Dynamic Data
Online SVMs
A d a p t a b l e l e a r n i n g for e v o l v i n g datas ets .

Incremental SVMs
Effi c i e nt l y u p d a t e s m o d e l s w i t h n e w d a t a points,
a v o i d i n g c o m p l e t e retraining.

Quantum SVMs
L e v e r a g e s q u a n t u m c o m p u t a ti o n to a c c e l e ra t e S V M
t ra i n i n g for c o m p l e x datas ets .
Case Study: Enhanced
Protein Secondary
Structure Prediction with
SVMs
Dataset Features
U ti l i z i n g t h e CB513 Employing a
b e n c h m a r k dataset c o m p r e h e n s i v e s e t of 2 0
a m i n o a c i d feat u re s
C o n s i s ti n g of 513 d i ve rs e
p ro te i n s e q u e n c e s

Challenge
A d d r e s s i n g t h e c h a l l e n g e s of h i g h d i m e n s i o n a l i t y i n feat u re
space

M o d e l i n g c o m p l e x s pati al re l ati o n s h i p s b e t w e e n a m i n o
acids
Implementation and Results
Feature Extraction Kernel Strategy

E m p l o y e d p o s i ti o n - s p e c i fi c s c o r i n g I m p l e m e n t e d t h e R B F kernel, A d o p t e d a O n e - v s - O n e m u l ti - c l a s s
m a t r i x ( P S S M ) to c a p t u r e o p ti m i z i n g p a ra m e t e r s for s t ra t e g y for effi ci ent a n d a c c u ra t e
e vo l u ti o n a r y informati on. e n h a n c e d c l a s s i fi c a ti o n a c c u ra c y. p ro te i n s e c o n d a r y st r u c t u re
predicti on.
U ti l i zed a s l i d i n g w i n d o w a p p r o a c h
to m o d e l s e q u e n ti a l d e p e n d e n c i e s
b e t w e e n a m i n o acids.
Analysis and Lessons Learned
Error Patterns Strengths
A n a l y s i s re ve a l s error The SVM model
p a tt e r n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d e m o n s t r a t e s parti cular
s p e c i fi c a m i n o a c i d types. s t r e n g t h i n p r e d i c ti n g b eta -
S o m e a m i n o a c i d s are s h e e t st r u c t u re s . T h e m o d e l
c o n s i s te n t l y m i s c l a s s i fi e d eff ec ti ve l y c a p t u r e s t h e
d u e to their st r u ct u ra l h y d r o g e n b o n d i n g p a tt e r n s
sim ilariti es or a m b i g u o u s c h a ra c te r i s ti c of b e t a - s h eet s .
fe at u re repres entati ons .

Limitations
P e r f o r m a n c e is l i m i te d i n va ri a b l e r e g i o n s of proteins , w h e r e
s e q u e n c e c o n s e r v a ti o n is l o w a n d st r u c t u ra l fl exibility is h i g h .
T h e m o d e l s t r u g g l e s to g e n e ra l i z e f r o m t h e ava i l a b l e t ra i n i n g
data.
When to Use SVMs
Dataset Size
M e d i u m - s i z e d d a t a s e t s a re ideal.

Dimensionality
H i g h - d i m e n s i o n a l p ro b l e m s .

Relationships
C o m p l e x n o n - linear.

Tradeoffs
A c c u r a c y o ve r t ra i n i n g ti me.
Preprocessing and Workflow Recommendations
Feature Scaling
E s s enti a l ; sta n d a rd i za ti o n t e c h n i q u e s a re g e n e ra l l y p refe r re d for o p ti m a l S V M p e r fo r m a n c e .

Missing Values
C a re f u l i m p u t a ti o n st ra t e g i e s a re n e c e s s a r y to av o i d b i a s a n d m a i n t a i n d a t a integrity.

Categorical Variables
A p p l y a p p ro p r i a te e n c o d i n g m e t h o d s , s u c h a s o n e - h o t e n c o d i n g , to c o n v e r t c a t e g o r i c a l fe a t u re s into n u m e r i c a l
representati ons.
Summary and Conclusion
• SV M s : O p ti m a l m a r g i n classifi ers.
• K e r n e l m e t h o d s : E n a b l e n o n - linear d e c i s i o n b o u n d a r i es .
• S u p p o r t vectors : Cri ti ca l for d e fi n i n g b o u n d a r i e s .
• H y p e r p a ra m e t e r o p ti m i zati o n : K e y to p e r fo r m a n c e .

S V M s p r o v i d e a r o b u s t f r a m e w o r k for b o t h c l a s s i fi c a ti o n a n d r e g r e s s i o n ta s ks . F u r t h e r a d v a n c e s lie i n hy b r i d
m o d e l s i n c o r p o ra ti n g d e e p l e a r n i n g t e c h n i q u e s a n d e n h a n c e d s cal abi l i ty soluti ons.
References
• Va p n i k , V. (1995). T h e N a t u r e of S tati sti c a l L e a r n i n g Theory.
S p r i n ge r.
• S c h o l ko p f, B., & S m o l a , A. J. (2002). L e a r n i n g w i t h Ke r n e l s .
MIT P re s s .
• C h a n g , C. C., & Lin, C. J. (2011). L I B S V M : A library for s u p p o r t
vector machines.
• Cristi anini, N., & S h a w e - Taylor, J. (2000). A n I n t r o d u c ti o n to
S u p p o r t Ve c t o r M a c h i n es .