DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

CST 204 - Database Management Systems

April 25, 2025

 CST 204 - Database
Management Systems

https://smitha-jacob.github.io/smithajac20
 Modul
e3
► SQL DML (Data Manipulation Language) - SQL queries on single and
multiple tables, Nested queries (correlated and non-correlated),
Aggregation and grouping, Views, assertions, Triggers,
► SQL data types.
► Physical Data Organization - Review of terms: physical and logical
records, blocking factor, pinned and unpinned organization. Heap
files, Indexing, Single level indices, numerical examples, Multi-
level-indices, numerical examples, B-Trees & B+-Trees (structure
only, algorithms notrequired), Extendible Hashing, Indexing on
multiple keys – grid files.

Page
3
SQL DML (Data Manipulation Language)
 Data Manipulation
Language
► DML stands for Data Manipulation Language.
► It is a language used for selecting, inserting, deleting and
updating data in a database.
► It is used to retrieve and manipulate data in a relational database.
► There are three basic constructs which allow database program
and user to
enter data and information are:
► INSERT
► UPDATE
► DELETE

Page 5
 SQL |
INSERT
► The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records
in a table.
► It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two
ways:
► Specify both the column names and the values to be inserted:
► Syntax :
► INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3, ...) VALUES (value1, value2,
value3, ...);
► If you are adding values for all the columns of the table, you do not need to
specify the column names in the SQL query.
► Make sure that the order of the values is in the same order as the columns
in the table.
► Syntax
► INSERT INTO table_name VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);
Page 6
 SQL | INSERT |
Example
CustomerI CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country
D
305 - 14th Ave. S.
89 White Clover Karl Jablonski Seattle 98128 USA
Suite 3B
Markets
90 Wilman Kala Matti Karttunen Keskuskatu 45 Helsinki 21240 Finland
91 Wolski Zbyszek ul. Filtrowa 68 Walla 01-012 Poland
► INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, ContactName, Address, City, PostalCode,
Country) VALUES
('Cardinal', 'Tom B. Erichsen', 'Skagen 21', 'Stavanger', '4006', 'Norway');
CustomerI CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country
D
305 - 14th Ave. S.
89 White Clover Karl Jablonski Seattle 98128 USA
Suite 3B
Markets
90 Wilman Kala Matti Karttunen Keskuskatu 45 Helsinki 21240 Finland
91 Wolski Zbyszek ul. Filtrowa 68 Walla 01-012 Poland
92 Cardinal Tom B. Erichsen Skagen 21 Stavanger 4006 Norway

Page 7
 SQL |
INSERT
► Insert Data Only in Specified Columns
► It is also possible to only insert data in specific columns.
► Syntax
► INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, City, Country) VALUES ('Cardinal',
'Stavanger', 'Norway');
► The selection from the "Customers" table will now look like this:

CustomerI CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

D
305 - 14th Ave. S.
89 White Clover Karl Jablonski Seattle 98128 USA
Suite 3B
Markets
90 Wilman Kala Matti Karttunen Keskuskatu 45 Helsinki 21240 Finland
91 Wolski Zbyszek ul. Filtrowa 68 Walla 01-012 Poland
92 Cardinal null null Stavanger null Norway

Page 8
 SQL |
INSERT
► To insert multiple rows in a table using Single SQL
Statement
INSERT INTO
table_name(Column1,Column2,Column3,.......)
VALUES (Value1, Value2,Value3,.....),
(Value1, Value2,Value3,.....),
(Value1, Value2,Value3,.....),
............................. ;
► Example
INSERT INTO STUDENT(ID, NAME,AGE,GRADE,CITY)
VALUES(1,"AMIT KUMAR",15,10,"DELHI"),
(2,"GAURI RAO",18,12,"BANGALORE"),
(3,"MANAV BHATT",17,11,"NEW DELHI"),
Page 9 (4,"RIYA KAPOOR",10,5,"UDAIPUR");
 SQL |
UPDATE
► The UPDATE statement in SQL is used to update the data of an
existing table in
database.
► We can update single columns as well as multiple columns
using UPDATE statement as per our requirement.
► Syntax
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 =
value2, ... WHERE condition;
► Note: The WHERE clause specifies
which record(s) that should be
updated. If you omit the WHERE
clause, all records in the table will
be updated!

Page
10
 SQL | UPDATE |
CustomerID CustomerName
Example
ContactName Address City PostalCode Country
1 Alfreds Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
Futterkiste
Ana Trujillo
Avda. de la
2 Emparedado Ana Trujillo México D.F. 05021 Mexico
Constitución 2222
s y helados
Antonio
3 Antonio Moreno Mataderos 2312 México D.F. 05023 Mexico
Moreno
Taquería
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. London WA1 1DP UK
Berglun
5 Christina Berglund Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
ds
snabbkö
p
UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName = 'Alfred Schmidt', City=
'Frankfurt' WHERE CustomerID = 1;

Page
11
 SQL | UPDATE |
Example
UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName = 'Alfred Schmidt', City=
'Frankfurt'
WHERE CustomerID = 1;
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country
Alfred Schmidt Obere Str. 57 Frankfurt 12209
1 Alfreds Germany
Futterkiste
Ana Trujillo
Avda. de la
2 Emparedado Ana Trujillo México D.F. 05021 Mexico
Constitución 2222
s y helados
Antonio
3 Antonio Moreno Mataderos 2312 México D.F. 05023 Mexico
Moreno
Taquería
4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. London WA1 1DP UK
Berglun
5 Christina Berglund Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
ds
snabbkö
p

Page
12
 SQL |
UPDATE
► UPDATE Multiple Records
► It is the WHERE clause that determines how many records will be
updated. UPDATE Customers
SET
ContactName='Juan'
WHERE CustomerName ContactName
CustomerID Address City PostalCode Country

Country='Mexico';
1 Alfreds Alfred Schmidt Obere Str. 57 Frankfurt 12209 Germany
Futterkiste
Ana Trujillo
Juan Avda. de la Mexico
2 Emparedado México D.F. 05021
Constitución
s y helados
2222
Antonio Moreno
3 Juan Mataderos 2312 México D.F. 05023 Mexico
Taquería
Thomas Hardy UK
4 Around the Horn 120 Hanover Sq. London WA1 1DP
Berglun
5 Christina Berglund Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
ds
snabbkö
p
Page
13
 SQL |
UPDATE
► If you omit the WHERE clause, ALL records will be
updated!
UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName='Juan';
CustomerID CustomerName ContactNam Address City PostalCode Country
e
1 Alfreds Juan Obere Str. 57 Frankfurt 12209 Germany
Futterkiste
Ana Trujillo
Avda. de la
2 Emparedado Juan México D.F. 05021 Mexico
Constitución
s y helados
2222
Antonio Moreno
3 Juan Mataderos 2312 México D.F. 05023 Mexico
Taquería
4 Around the Horn Juan 120 Hanover Sq. London WA1 1DP UK
Berglun
5 Juan Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
ds
snabbkö
p

Page
14
 SQL |
DELETE
► The DELETE Statement in SQL is used to delete existing records
from a table.
► We can delete a single record or multiple records depending on the
condition we specify in the WHERE clause.
► Syntax
► DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;
► The WHERE clause specifies which record(s) should be deleted. If you omit the WHERE
clause, all records in the table will be deleted!

Page
15
 SQL | DELETE |
Example
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country
1 Alfreds Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
Futterkiste
Ana Trujillo
Avda. de la
2 Emparedado Ana Trujillo México D.F. 05021 Mexico
Constitución
s y helados
2222
Antonio Moreno
3 Antonio Moreno Mataderos 2312 México D.F. 05023 Mexico
Taquería

► DELETE FROM Customers WHERE CustomerName='Alfreds

Futterkiste';
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country
Ana Trujillo
Avda. de la
2 Emparedado Ana Trujillo México D.F. 05021 Mexico
Constitución
s y helados
2222
Antonio
3 Antonio Moreno Mataderos 2312 México D.F. 05023 Mexico
Moreno
Taquería

Page
16
 SQL |
DELETE
► Delete All Records
► It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. This
means that the table structure, attributes, and indexes will be intact:
► Syntax
► DELETE FROM table_name;
► Example
► DELETE FROM customers;

Page
17
 Basic Query
Structure
► A typical SQL query has the form:

select A1, A2, ..., An

from r1, r2, ..., rm
where P

► Ri represents a relation
► Ai represents an attribute
► P is a predicate.
► The result of an SQL query is a
relation.

Page
18
 The select
Clause
► The select clause lists the attributes desired in the result of a query
► corresponds to the projection operation of the relational algebra
► Example: find the names of all instructors:
select name from instructor
► NOTE: SQL names are case insensitive (i.e., you may use upper-
or lower-case
letters.)
► E.g., Name = NAME = name

Page
19
 The select Clause

SELECT name
from
instructor

Page Prof. Sarju S, Department of Computer Science and Engineering,

20 SJCET Palai
 The select
Clause
► SQL allows duplicates in relations as well as in query results.
► To force the elimination of duplicates, insert the keyword distinct
after select.
► Find the department names of all instructors, and remove
duplicates
select distinct dept_name from instructor
► The keyword all specifies that duplicates should not be removed.

select all dept_name from instructor

Page
21
 The select
Clause

SELECT
DISTINCT
dept_name
FROM
instructor

Page
22
The select Clause
► An asterisk in the select clause denotes “all
attributes”
select * from instructor

Page
23
 The select
► Clause
The select clause can contain arithmetic expressions involving the
operation, +,
–, , and /, and operating on constants or attributes of tuples.
► The query:

select ID, name,

salary/12 from
instructor
would return a relation that is the same as the instructor
relation, except that the value of the attribute salary is divided by
12.
► Can rename “salary/12” using the as clause:

select ID, name, salary/12 as

Page
24
monthly_salary
 The select
Clause

SELECT
ID,name,salary
/12 FROM
instructor

Page
25
 The where
► Clause
The where clause specifies conditions that the result must satisfy
► Corresponds to the selection predicate of the relational algebra.
► To find all instructors in Comp. Sci. dept
select name
from
instructor
where
dept_name
= ‘Comp.
Sci.'
► Comparison results can be combined using the logical connectives
and, or, and not
► To find all instructors in Comp. Sci. dept with salary > 80000
select name
Page
26 from
 The where
Clause

SELECT `name` FROM

`instructor` WHERE
`dept_name`="Comp.
Sci."

Page
27
 The from
► Clauseinvolved in the query
The from clause lists the relations
► Corresponds to the Cartesian product operation of the relational algebra.
► Find the Cartesian product instructor X teaches
select *
from instructor, teaches
► generates every possible instructor – teaches pair, with all attributes from both
relations.
► For common attributes (e.g., ID), the attributes in the resulting table are
renamed using the
relation name (e.g., instructor.ID)
► Cartesian product not very useful directly, but useful combined
with where- clause condition (selection operation in relational
algebra).

Page
28
 The from
Clause

SELECT * FROM instructor ,

teaches
Page
29
 SQL SELECT
► COUNT
The SQL COUNT() is a function that returns the number of records of
the table in the output.
► This function is used with the SQL SELECT statement.
► Syntax of Select Count Function in SQL
► SELECT COUNT(column_name) FROM table_name;

Page
30
 SQL SELECT
COUNT
Bike_Name Bike_Color Bike_Cost
Pulsar Black 185,000
Apache Black NULL
KTM RC Red 90,0000 SELECT COUNT
Royal Enfield White NULL (Bike_Color) AS
TotalBikeColor FROM
Livo Black 80,000 Bikes ;
KTM DUKE Red 195,000
TotalBikeColor
6

Page
31
 SQL SELECT
► COUNT(*)
The count(*) function in SQL shows all the Null and Non-Null
records present in the table.
► Syntax of Count (*) Function in SQL
► SELECT COUNT(*) FROM table_name;

Page
32
 SQL SELECT
Bike_Name Bike_Color
COUNT(*)
Bike_Cost
Livo Black 185,000 Suppose, you want to count
the total number of records from
Apache Red NULL the Bike Table.
Pulsar Red 90,0000
Royal Black NULL SELECT COUNT (*) FROM Bikes
Count(*)
Enfield ; 6
KTM DUKE Black 80,000
KTM RC White 195,000

Page
33
 Count With WHERE clause in SQL

► We can also use the Count() function with the WHERE clause.
► The Count Function with WHERE clause in the SELECT statement
shows those records that matched the specified criteria.
► Syntax of Count() Function With WHERE clause in SQL
► SELECT COUNT(column_name) FROM
table_name
WHERE [condition];

Page
34
 Count With WHERE
clause in SQL
Bike_Name Bike_Color Bike_Cost
Count the total number of bikes whose
Apache Black 90,0000 color is
Livo Black NULL black.
KTM RC Red 185,000
KTM DUKE White NULL SELECT COUNT
Royal Enfield Red 80,000
(Bike_Name) AS
Pulsar Black 195,000
TotalBikeBlackColor FROM
Bikes WHERE Bike_Color =
'Black';
TotalBikeBlackColor
3

Page
35
 Count With WHERE clause in
SQL - Exercise
Emp_Id Emp_Name Emp_Salary Emp_City

2001 Bheem 30000 Jaipur

2002 Ankit 45000 Delhi
2003 Sumit 40000 Delhi
2004 Ram 29000 Goa
2005 Abhay 25000 Delhi

Count the total number of those employees who belong to

Delhi city.

SELECT COUNT (Emp_Name) AS TotalEmpCity FROM Employee_details WHERE

Emp_City = 'Delhi';

Page
36
 Count With DISTINCT keyword
► The DISTINCT keyword with the COUNT function shows only the
numbers of unique rows of a column.
► Syntax of Count Function With DISTINCT keyword in SQL
► SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) FROM table_name WHERE
[condition];
Car_Name Car_Color Car_Cost
i20 White 10,85,000
Hyundai Venue Black 9,50,000
SELECT
Swift Dezire Red 9,00,000
Hyundai Creta White 7,95,000
Kia Seltos White 8,00,000 COUNT
Kia Sonet Red 10,00,000

Count the unique colors of a car from the table. (DISTINCT

Page
37
 Count With DISTINCT keyword-Example Mysql

Page
38
 Count With DISTINCT keyword-Example Mysql

Count the unique book category of books from

the table.
Page
39
 Count With DISTINCT keyword-Example Mysql

Count the unique book category of books from

the table.
Page
40
 SQL ORDER BY
► Clause
Whenever we want to sort the records based on the columns
stored in the tables of the SQL database, then we consider using
the ORDER BY clause in SQL.
► Using the ORDER BY clause, we can sort the records in
ascending or descending order as per our requirement.
► The records will be sorted in ascending order whenever the ASC
keyword is used with ORDER by clause. DESC keyword will sort the
records in descending order.
► If no keyword is specified after the column based on which
we have to sort the records, in that case, the sorting will be
done by default in the ascending order.

Page
41
 SQL ORDER BY
► Clause
Syntax to sort the records in ascending order:

SELECT ColumnName1,...,ColumnNameN FROM TableName ORDER BY

ColumnName ASC;

► Syntax to sort the records in descending order:

SELECT ColumnName1,...,ColumnNameN FROM TableName ORDER BY

ColumnName DESC;

Page
42
 SQL ORDER BY
Clause

Page
43
 SQL ORDER BY
Clause
ID NAME AGE ADDRESS SALARY

2 Shiva 22 Bhopal 21000

Tiwari
3 Ajeet 45 Meerut 65000
Bharga
v
4 Ritesh 36 Azamgarh 26000
Yadav
5 Balwant 45 Varanasi 36000 SELECT * FROM customers
Singh
ORDER BY
6 Mahes 26 Mathura 22000
h Name ASC;
Sharm
a
7 Rohit 19 Ahemdaba 38000
Shrivast d
av
8 Neeru 29 Pune 40000
Sharma
9 Aakas 32 Mumbai 43500
h
Yadav
10
Page Sahil 35 Aurangaba 68800
44 Sheikh d
 SQL ORDER BY
ID NAMEClause
AGE ADDRESS SALARY

9 Aakash Yadav 32 Mumbai 43500

3 Ajeet 45 Meerut 65000

Bhargav
5 Balwant 45 Varanasi 36000
Singh
1 Himani 21 Modinagar 22000
Gupta
6 Mahes 26 Mathura 22000
h
Sharm
a
8 Neeru 29 Pune 40000
Sharma
4 Ritesh Yadav 36 Azamgarh 26000

7 Rohit 19 Ahemdabad 38000

Shrivast
av
10 Sahil Sheikh 35 Aurangabad 68800

Page 2 Shiva Tiwari 22 Bhopal 21000

45
 SQL ORDER BY Clause
► Write a query to- sort
Exercise
the records in the ascending order
of the addresses stored in the customers table.

SELECT *FROM customers ORDER BY Address;

► Write a queryto sort the records in the descending order
of the customer salary stored in the customers table.

SELECT *FROM customers ORDER BY Salary DESC;

► Write a query to sort the records in the descending order of the

customer age stored in the customers table.
SELECT *FROM customers ORDER BY Age DESC;

Page
46
SQL DML (Data Manipulation Language)
 SQL JOIN

Page
44
 SQL JOIN
► How do I get data from multiple tables?
► A SQL JOIN combines records from two
tables.
► A JOIN locates related column values in the
two tables.
► A query can contain zero, one, or
multiple JOIN operations.
► INNER JOIN is the same as JOIN; the keyword
INNER is optional.
Page
49
 SQL
JOIN
► Four different types of JOINs
► (INNER) JOIN: Select records that
have matching values in both
tables.
► FULL (OUTER) JOIN: Selects all
records that match either left or
right table records.
► LEFT (OUTER) JOIN: Select records
from the first (left-most) table
with matching right table records.
► RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN: Select records
from the second (right-most) table
with matching left table records
Page
50
 The SQL JOIN syntax

► The general syntax is

SELECT column-names
FROM table-name1 INNER JOIN table-name2
ON column-name1 = column-name2
WHERE condition

► The INNER keyword is optional: it is the default as well as

the most commonly used JOIN operation.

Page
51
 The SQL JOIN Example

OR

Page
52
 The SQL JOIN
►
Example
Problem: List all orders with customer information
SELECT OrderNumber, TotalAmount, FirstName,
LastName, City, Country FROM Order JOIN Customer
ON Order.CustomerId = Customer.Id

Page
53
 SQL LEFT
JOIN
► What is a LEFT JOIN in SQL?
► A LEFT JOIN performs a join starting with the first (left-
most) table.
► Then, any matched records from the second table (right-
most) will be included.
► LEFT JOIN and LEFT OUTER JOIN are the same.

Page
54
 The SQL LEFT JOIN syntax
► The general LEFT OUTER JOIN syntax is

SELECT column-names
FROM table-name1 LEFT OUTER JOIN table-name2
ON column-name1 = column-name2
WHERE condition

► The OUTER keyword is

optional
Page
55
 The SQL LEFT JOIN syntax

Page
56
 SQL LEFT JOIN
Example
► Problem: List all customers and the total amount they spent
irrespective
whether they placed any orders or not.
SELECT OrderNumber, TotalAmount, FirstName,
LastName, City, Country
FROM Customer C LEFT JOIN Order O
ON O.CustomerId = C.Id
ORDER BY TotalAmount

Page
57
 SQL RIGHT
JOIN
► What is a RIGHT JOIN in SQL?
► A RIGHT JOIN performs a join starting with the second (right-most) table
and then any
matching first (left-most) table records.
► RIGHT JOIN and RIGHT OUTER JOIN are the same.

Page
58
 The SQL RIGHT JOIN syntax
► The general RIGHT OUTER JOIN syntax is:

SELECT column-names
FROM table-name1 RIGHT OUTER JOIN table-
name2
ON column-name1 = column-name2
WHERE condition

► The OUTER keyword is

optional
Page
59
 The SQL RIGHT JOIN Example

Page
60
 SQL RIGHT JOIN Examples
► Problem: List customers that have not placed orders
SELECT TotalAmount, FirstName, LastName,
City, Country
FROM [Order] O RIGHT JOIN Customer C
ON O.CustomerId = C.Id
WHERE TotalAmount IS NULL

Page
61
 SQL FULL
JOIN
► What does a SQL FULL JOIN return?
► FULL JOIN returns all matching records from both tables whether
the other table matches or not.
► Be aware that a FULL JOIN can potentially return very large
datasets.
► These two: FULL JOIN and FULL OUTER JOIN are the same.

Page
62
 The SQL FULL JOIN syntax
► The general FULL OUTER JOIN syntax is:

SELECT column-names
FROM table-name1 FULL OUTER JOIN table-name2
ON column-name1 = column-name2
WHERE condition

► The OUTER keyword is optional

Page
63
 SQL FULL JOIN
Examples
► Problem: Match all customers and suppliers by country
SELECT C.FirstName, C.LastName, C.Country AS CustomerCountry,
S.Country AS SupplierCountry, S.CompanyName
FROM Customer C FULL JOIN Supplier S
ON C.Country =S.Country
ORDER BY C.Country, S.Country

This returns suppliers that have no customers in their

country, and customers that have no suppliers in
their country,
and customers and suppliers that are from the same
country.

Page
64
Aggregation and grouping
 Aggregation and grouping
► Aggregate functions are a very powerful tool to analyze the data
and gain
useful business insights.
► The most commonly used SQL aggregate functions include SUM, MAX,
MIN, COUNT
and AVERAGE.
► Aggregators are very often used in conjunction with Grouping
functions in
order to summarize the data.

Page
66
 SQL
COUNT()
► The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a specified
criteria.
► SQL COUNT(column_name)
► The COUNT(column_name) function returns the number of values (NULL values
will not be counted) of the specified column:
► SELECT COUNT(column_name) FROM table_name;
► SQL COUNT(*)
► The COUNT(*) function returns the number of records in a table:
► SELECT COUNT(*) FROM table_name;
► SQL COUNT(DISTINCT column_name)
► The COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) function returns the number of distinct
values of the
specified column:
► SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) FROM
Page
table_name;
67
 SQL COUNT()
Example
OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID
10265 7 2 1996-07-25 1
10266 87 3 1996-07-26 3
10267 25 4 1996-07-29 1

counts the number of orders from "CustomerID"=7 from the "Orders"

table: SELECT COUNT(CustomerID) AS OrdersFromCustomerID7 FROM
Orders WHERE CustomerID=7;
OrdersFromCustomerID7

Page
68
 SQL COUNT(*)
Example
OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID
10265 7 2 1996-07-25 1
10266 87 3 1996-07-26 3
10267 25 4 1996-07-29 1

To get number of rows in the 'orders' table, the following SQL

statement can be used:
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM orders;
COUNT(*)
3

Page
69
 SQL COUNT(DISTINCT
column_name) Example
OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID
10265 7 2 1996-07-25 1
10266 87 3 1996-07-26 3
10267 25 4 1996-07-29 1

SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT ShipperID)

FROM orders;

COUNT(DISTINCT ShipperID)
2

Page
70
 SQL SUM,
AVG
► SELECT SUM returns the sum of the data
values.
► And SELECT AVG returns the average of the
data values.
► The general SUM syntax is:
SELECT SUM(column-name)FROM table-name
► The general AVG syntax is:
SELECT AVG(column-name)FROM table-name

Page
71
 SQL SUM, AVG
Examples
► Problem: Compute the total amount sold in 2013.
► SELECT SUM(TotalAmount) Sum
FROM [Order] 658388.7
WHERE YEAR(OrderDate) = 2013 5

► Problem: Compute the average size of all orders.

SELECT AVG(TotalAmount) Average
1631.87781
FROM [Order] 9

Page
72
 SQL MAX and
MIN
► SELECT MIN returns the minimum value for a
column.
► And SELECT MAX returns the maximum value for a
column.

► The general MIN syntax is:

SELECT MIN(column-name)
FROM table-name

► The general MAX syntax is:

SELECT MAX(column-name)
FROM table-name
Page
73
 SQL MAX and MIN
Example
Problem: Find the cheapest product
SELECT MIN(UnitPrice)
FROM Product UnitPrice
2.50
Problem: Find the
largest order placed
in 2014
SELECT MAX(TotalAmount) TotalAmount
FROM [Order] 17250.00
WHERE YEAR(OrderDate) =
2014 OrderDate
2013-12-31
00:00:00.000
Problem: Find the last
order date in 2013
Page
SELECT MAX(OrderDate)
74
 SQL GROUP BY
Clause
► What is the purpose of the GROUP BY clause?
► The GROUP BY clause groups records into summary rows.
► It returns one record for each group.
► GROUP BY queries often include aggregates: COUNT, MAX, SUM,
AVG, etc.
► A GROUP BY clause can group by one or more columns.

Page
75
 SQL GROUP BY
Clause
► The SQL GROUP BY syntax
SELECT column-names
FROM table-name
WHERE condition GROUP BY
column-names
► The general syntax with ORDER BY is:
SELECT column-names
FROM table-
name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column-
Page names
76
 SQL GROUP BY Clause -
Example
► Problem: List the number of books in each book category

► SELECT COUNT(bookId), bcategory FROM book GROUP BY bcategory;

Page
77
 SQL GROUP BY Clause
Example
► Problem: List the number of customers in each
country.
SELECT COUNT(Id), Country
FROM Customer
GROUP BY Country

Page
78
 SQL GROUP BY Clause -
Example
► Problem: List the number of books published by each publisher in
the descending order of publisher name.
► SELECT COUNT(bookid) as Number_of_books, publisher FROM book1
GROUP BY publisher
ORDER by publisher DESC;

Page
79
 SQL GROUP BY Clause
Example
Problem: List the number of customers in each country sorted
high to low
SELECT COUNT(Id), Country
FROM Customer
GROUP BY Country
ORDER BY COUNT(Id) DESC

Page
80
 SQL GROUP BY Clause
Example
Problem: List the total amount of each category of
books as tot_bookprice and book category in the highest
amount order.
SELECT SUM(b1.bookprice) AS
tot_bookprice,b.bcategory
FROM book1 b1 JOIN book b ON
b.bookid=b1.bookid
GROUP BY b.bcategory
ORDER BY SUM(b1.bookprice) DESC;

Page
81
 SQL GROUP BY Clause
Example
Problem: List the total amount ordered for each customer in the
highest amount order.
SELECT SUM(O.TotalAmount) AS SUM, C.FirstName, C.LastName
FROM Order O JOIN Customer C
ON O.CustomerId = C.Id
GROUP BY C.FirstName,
C.LastName
ORDER BY SUM(O.TotalAmount)
DESC

Page
82
 SQL HAVING
Clause
► What does the HAVING clause do in a query?
► The HAVING clause is like WHERE but operates on grouped records returned
by a GROUP BY.
► HAVING applies to summarized group records, whereas WHERE
applies to individual records.
► Only the groups that meet the HAVING criteria will be returned.
► HAVING requires that a GROUP BY clause is present.
► Both WHERE and HAVING can be used in the same query at the
same time.

Page
83
 The SQL HAVING
syntax
► The general syntax is
SELECT column-names
FROM table-name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column-names
HAVING condition
► The general syntax with
ORDER BY is:
SELECT column-names
FROM table-name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column-names
HAVING condition
ORDER BY column-
Page
84
names
 SQL GROUP BY
Examples
► Problem: List the number of books published by each publisher and
the publisher name, who has published more than one book.

Page
85
 SQL GROUP BY
Examples
► Problem: List the number of books available in each edition in the
ascending order of edition.

Page
86
 SQL GROUP BY
Examples
► Problem: List the number of books available(with more than 1
books) in each edition in the ascending order of edition.

Page
87
 SQL GROUP BY
Examples
► Problem: List the number of customers in each country. Only include
countries
with more than 10 customers.
SELECT COUNT(Id), Country
FROM Customer
GROUP BY Country
HAVING COUNT(Id)
> 10

Page
88
 SQL GROUP BY ,where,having ,order by
Examples
Problem: List the number of customers in each country, except the
USA, sorted
high to low. Only include countries with 9 or more customers.
SELECT
COUNT(Id), Country
FROM Customer
WHERE Country <> 'USA'
GROUP BY Country
HAVING COUNT(Id) >= 9
ORDER BY COUNT(Id) DESC

Page
89
 SQL GROUP BY
Examples
Problem: List all customer with average orders between $1000 and
$1200.
SELECT AVG(TotalAmount), FirstName, LastName
FROM Order O JOIN Customer C ON O.CustomerId = C.Id
GROUP BY FirstName, LastName
HAVING AVG(TotalAmount) BETWEEN 1000 AND 1200

Page
90
Nested Queries
 SQL IN
Operator
► The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a
WHERE clause.
► The IN operator is a shorthand for multiple OR conditions.

or

Page
82
 SQL IN and Not in
Operator
 Problem : Display all customers who are located in Germany, France
or UK:

 Problem : Display all customers who are not located in Germany,

France or UK:

 Problem: List all customers that are from the same countries as the
suppliers:
Page
82
 Sub Query
in SQL
► SubQuery in SQL is a query inside another query.
► Some time to get particular information from a database you may
need to fire two separate SQL queries, subQuery is a way to
combine or join them in a single query.
► SQL query which is on the inner part of the main query is
called inner query
while the outer part of the main query is called outer query.
► for example in below SQL query
SELECT name FROM city WHERE pincode IN (SELECT
pincode FROM pin WHERE zone='west')

Page
82
 Sub Query
in SQL

► Subqueries can be categorized into two types:

► A non correlated (simple) subquery obtains its results
independently of its containing (outer) statement.
► A correlated subquery requires values from its outer
query in order to execute.

Page
83
 Noncorrelated
Subqueries
► A noncorrelated subquery executes independently of the
outer query.
► The subquery executes first, and then passes its results
to the outer
query,
For example:
► Find the instructor who draws second highest salary

SELECT MAX(salary) from instructor WHERE salary NOT

IN (SELECT MAX(salary) FROM instructor)

Page
84
 Noncorrelated Subqueries
SELECT MAX(salary) from instructor WHERE salary NOT IN
(SELECT MAX(salary) FROM instructor)

Page Prof. Sarju S, Department of Computer Science and Engineering,

85 SJCET Palai
 Noncorrelated
Subqueries
SELECT MAX(`salary`) from instructor WHERE salary NOT IN
(SELECT
MAX(salary) FROM instructor)
► Here the subquery is SELECT MAX(salary) FROM instructor , you
can execute and substitute the result of that query e.g. if
subquery return 95000 then the outer query is reduced to

SELECT MAX(`salary`) from instructor where salary NOT IN

(95000)

Page
86
 Correlated
Subqueries
► The same query can written as a correlated
subquery
SELECT as
e.name, e.salary from instructor e
where 2= (SELECT COUNT(`salary`) FROM
instructor p WHERE e.salary >= p.salary)
► In this example, the subquery is SELECT COUNT(`salary`) FROM
instructor p WHERE e.salary <= p.salary, you cannot swap
it's value for the outer query because it needs to be executed for
each employee.
► A correlated subquery depends upon the outer query and
cannot execute in isolation
► A correlated subquery is much slower than a non-correlated
subquery
Page
87
 Correlated
Subqueries
SELECT e.name, e.salary from instructor e
where 2= (SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT `salary`)
FROM instructor p WHERE e.salary >=
p.salary)

Page
87
 Correlated
Subqueries
► A correlated subquery depends upon the outer query and
cannot execute in isolation
► A correlated subquery is much slower than a non-correlated
subquery
► Here is an example for a typical correlated subquery.
► Find all employees whose salary is above average for their
department.

► SELECT employee_number, name

FROM employees emp
WHERE salary > ( SELECT AVG(salary) FROM employees
WHERE department = emp. department);
Page
87
 Correlated
Subqueries
► In the above query the outer query is

► SELECT employee_number, name FROM employees emp

WHERE salary > ...

► and the inner query (the correlated subquery) is

► SELECT AVG(salary) FROM employees WHERE department =

emp.department

► In the above nested query the inner query has to be re-executed for
each employee.

Page
87
Subqueries with EXISTS or NOT EXISTS
 Subqueries with EXISTS or
NOT EXISTS
► Use EXISTS to identify the existence of a relationship without regard for the
quantity.
► For example, EXISTS returns true if the subquery returns any rows,
and [NOT] EXISTS returns true if the subquery returns no rows.
► The EXISTS condition is considered to be met if the subquery returns at
least one row.
► Syntax

Page Prof. Sarju S, Department of Computer Science and Engineering,

89 SJCET Palai
 Subqueries with EXISTS or
NOT EXISTS
► Lists the books with a book price less than 400
► SELECT bookname FROM book

WHERE EXISTS (SELECT * FROM book1 WHERE

book.bookid = book1.bookid AND book1.bookprice <
400);
 using Join operation-same result may be
achieved
► Lists the books with a book price less than 400
SELECT bookname FROM book join book1 on
book1.bookid = book.bookid WHERE book1.bookprice <
400;
PRODUCTS

SUPPLIER
 Subqueries with EXISTS or
NOT EXISTS

► Lists the suppliers with a product price less than 20

► SELECT SupplierName FROM
Suppliers
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT * FROM
Products WHERE
Products.SupplierID =
Suppliers.supplierID AND
Price < 20);
 Subqueries with EXISTS or
NOT EXISTS

first and last name of the

customers who placed atleast one
order.?
SELECT fname, lname FROM Customers
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT * FROM Orders
WHERE
Customers.customer_id =
Orders.c_id);
 Subqueries with EXISTS or
NOT EXISTS

last and first name of the customers

who has not placed any order.

SELECT lname, fname FROM Customer WHERE

NOT EXISTS (SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE
Customers.customer_id = Orders.c_id);
 Subqueries with EXISTS or
NOT EXISTS

Page Prof. Sarju S, Department of Computer Science and Engineering,

89 SJCET Palai
Views (Virtual Tables) in SQL
 Views in DBMS?

Page
91
 Why Views in
DBMS?
► Views are a special version of tables in SQL.
► They provide a virtual table environment for various complex
operations.
► You can select data from multiple tables, or you can select
specific data based on certain criteria in views.
► It does not hold the actual data; it holds only the definition of
the view in
the data dictionary.
► The view is a query stored in the data dictionary, on
which the user can query just like they do on tables.
► It does not use the physical memory, only the query is stored
in the data
dictionary.
Page► It is computed dynamically, whenever the user performs any
92
 Why Views in
DBMS?
► In COMPANY database we may frequently issue queries that
retrieve the
employee name and the project names that the employee works
on.
► Rather than having to specify the join of the three tables
EMPLOYEE, WORKS_ON, and PROJECT every time we issue this
query, we can define a view that is specified as the result of
these joins.
► Then we can issue queries on the view, which are specified as
Page
93 single table retrievals rather than as retrievals involving two
 Views (Virtual
Tables) in SQL
► A view in SQL terminology is a single table that is derived from other tables

► These other tables can be base tables or previously defined views

► A view does not necessarily exist in physical form;

► It is considered to be a virtual table, in contrast to base tables,

► whose tuples are always physically stored in the database.

► This limits the possible update operations that can be applied to views, but it does not

provide any limitations on querying a view.

Page
94
 Views (Virtual
Tables) in SQL

Page
95
 Create a SQL
VIEW
► The syntax to create a VIEW is as follows:

CREATE VIEW Name AS

Select column1,
Column2...Column N
From tables
Where conditions;

Page
96
 SQL CREATE VIEW
Examples
► The following SQL creates a view that shows all customers from
Brazil:

CREATE VIEW [Brazil

Customers] AS
SELECT CustomerName,
ContactName
FROM Customers
WHERE Country =
'Brazil';
SELECT * FROM [Brazil
Customers];

Page Prof. Sarju S,

97 De
 SQL CREATE VIEW
Examples
► Problem: creates a view that shows all
books of programming category:

CREATE VIEW programming_books AS

SELECT bookname, bcategory ,isbn FROM
book
WHERE bcategory = 'programming';

Page Prof. Sarju S,

97 De
 DELETING VIEWS
► We have learned about
creating a View, but
what if a created View is
not needed any more?
DROP VIEW view_name;
► SQL allows us to delete
an existing View. DROP VIEW [Brazil Customers];
► We can delete or drop a
View using the DROP
statement.

Prof. Sarju S, Department of Computer Science and Engineering,

SJCET Palai
 UPDATE
View
► The SQL UPDATE VIEW command can be used to modify the
data of a
view.
► All views are not updatable.
► An updatable view is one which allows performing a UPDATE
command on itself without affecting any other table.
 UPDATE
View
► When can a view be updated?
► The view is defined based on one and only one table.
► The view must include the PRIMARY KEY of the table based upon
which the view has been created.
► The view should not have any field made out of aggregate
functions.
► The view must not have any DISTINCT clause in its definition.
► The view must not have any GROUP BY or HAVING clause in its
definition.
► The view must not have any SUBQUERIES in its definitions.
► If the view you want to update is based upon another view, the
later should
be updatable.
► Any of the selected output fields (of the view) must not use
constants, strings or value expressions.
 UPDATE
View
Name Description
Name of the
virtual table
view_name
or view
where data UPDATE < view_name >
will be
modified. SET<column1>=<value1>,<col
Name of the umn2>=<value2>,.....
column1,column columns of
2 the table. WHERE <condition>;
Values for
the columns
value1,value2
which are
going to be
updated.
Condition
condition
or
criteria.
 UPDATE View
Example

► To update the view 'agentview' with following conditions

-
► 'commission' must be set at .13, 'working_area' must be
'London',
the following SQL statement can be used:
UPDATE agentview
SET commission=.13
WHERE working_area=’London’;
 SQL updatable
views
► This statement bellow creates a updatable view 'countryagent –
agents from Brisban':
CREATE VIEW countryagent
AS SELECT *
FROM agents
WHERE working_area='Brisban';
 Uses of a
View
► A good database should contain views due to the given reasons:
► Restricting data access
► Views provide an additional level of table security by restricting access
to a
predetermined set of rows and columns of a table.
► Hiding data complexity
► A view can hide the complexity that exists in a multiple table join.
► Simplify commands for the user
► Views allows the user to select information from multiple tables without
requiring the users to actually know how to perform a join.
► Store complex queries
► Views can be used to store complex queries.
 Uses of a
View
► Rename Columns –
► Views can also be used to rename the columns without affecting
the base tables provided the number of columns in view must
match the number of columns specified in select statement.
► Thus, renaming helps to hide the names of the columns of the
base tables.
► Multiple view facility
► Different views can be created on the same table for different
users.
Assertions
 Assertions
CONSTRAINTS

BUILT-IN ADDITIONAL TYPES

UNIQUE ASSERTION
S
NOT
NULL
ENITITY INTEGRITY

REFERENTIAL
INTEGRITY
 Asserti
ons
► Creation of assertions are constraints that are not associated with only
one table.
► An assertion statement should ensure a certain condition will always
exist in the database.
► DBMS always checks the assertion whenever modifications are done
in the
corresponding table.
► We can use Assertions when we know that the given particular
condition is always true.
► Assertions are not linked to specific table or event.
► It performs task specified or defined by the user.
► When the SQL condition is not met then there are chances to an entire
table or even Database to get locked up.
 Asserti
ons
► An assertion is a predicate expressing a condition we wish the
database to always satisfy.
► Domain constraints, functional dependency and referential
integrity are special forms of assertion.
► Where a constraint cannot be expressed in these forms, we
use an assertion, e.g.
► Ensuring the sum of loan amounts for each branch is less than
the sum of all
account balances at the branch.
► Ensuring every loan customer keeps a minimum of $1000 in an
account.
► An assertion in SQL takes the form,
► create assertion assertion-name check
predicated
 Asserti
ons
► Confirm that the employee salary should be between 5000 and
300000

create assertion salarycheck check (not exists(select

empid from employee e where e.salary>300000 or
e.salary<5000))
 Assertions
Example
► Whether the salaries of an employees must not be greater than
the salary of the manager of the corresponding department
CREATE ASSERTION Salary_check CHECK(
NOT EXISTS (SELECT * FROM Employee e, Employee m,
Department D
WHERE
e.salary>m.salary
AND e.dno = m.dno
AND
d.mgr_ssn=m.ssn
))
 Assertions
• Branch (branch_name, branch_city, assets)
• Loan (loan_number, amount,branch_name)
• Account (account_number, balance,branch_name)

CREATE TABLE Branch( branch_name varchar(50)PRIMARY KEY,

branch_city varchar(50), assets double);
………………………………………………………………………………………..

CREATE TABLE Loan( loan_number int(11)PRIMARY KEY,

branch_name varchar(50), amount double FOREIGN KEY
(branch_name) REFERENCES Branch(branch_name))
…………………………………………………………………………
CREATE TABLE Account(
account_number int(11)
PRIMARY KEY, branch_name
varchar(50),
balance double
FOREIGN KEY(branch_name)
REFERENCES Branch(branch_name));
Presentation title
 Asserti
ons
INSERT INTO Branch VALUES('SBT','Pala',500000);
INSERT INTO Branch VALUES('SIB','Kottayam',240000);
INSERT INTO Branch VALUES('AX','Pala',160000);
………………………………………………………………………………………..
INSERT INTO Loan VALUES(123,'SBT',50000);
INSERT INTO Loan VALUES(100,'SIB',40000);
INSERT INTO Loan VALUES(101,'SBT',60000);
INSERT INTO Loan VALUES(106,'SIB',440000);
INSERT INTO Loan VALUES(108,'SBT',410000);
……………………………………………………………
………………………..
INSERT INTO AccountVALUES(222,'SBT',150000);
INSERT INTO Account VALUES(333,'SIB',140000);
INSERT INTO Account VALUES(111,'SBT',160000);
 Assertions
Example
► Ensuring the sum of loan amounts for each branch is less than the
sum of all account balances at the branch.
CREATE ASSERTION SUM_CONSTRAINT CHECK (NOT EXISTS
(SELECT * FROM BRANCH WHERE (SELECT SUM(AMOUNT)FROM LOAN
WHERE LOAN.BRANCH_NAME =
BRANCH.BRANCH_NAME )>=
(SELECT SUM (AMOUNT) FROM ACCOUNT WHERE LOAN.BRANCH_NAME
= BRANCH.BRANCH_NAME )))
 Asserti
ons
► When an assertion is created, the system tests it for
validity.
► If the assertion is valid, any further modification to the
database is allowed only if it does not cause that
assertion to be violated.
► This testing may result in significant overhead if the
assertions are
complex. Because of this, the assert should be used with
great care.
Triggers
 What is
Triggers?
► Triggers are SQL codes that are automatically executed in
response to a certain events on a particular table.
► These are used to maintain the integrity of the data.

What is
Trigger?
 What is
Triggers?

1. New User added into

Database

2. Manually send the welcome email Send to user

What happened if N number of users added to the

database?
 Trigg
er
► Triggers are stored programs, which are automatically
executed or fired when some events occur.

► Triggers are, in fact, written to be executed in response to any

of the
following events −
●A database manipulation (DML) statement (DELETE, INSERT, or
UPDATE)
●A database definition (DDL) statement (CREATE, ALTER, or
DROP).
●A database operation (SERVERERROR, LOGON, LOGOFF,
STARTUP, or SHUTDOWN).
 Trigg
er
► A trigger is a statement that is automatically executed by the
system as a side effect of a modification to the database.
► We need to
► Specify the conditions under which the trigger is executed.
► Specify the actions to be taken by the trigger.
► In SQL, triggers are database objects, actually, a special kind
of stored
procedure, which “reacts” to certain actions we make in the
database.
► The main idea behind triggers is that they always perform an
action in
case some event happens.
 Trigger
Syntax
create trigger [trigger_name]
[before | after]
{insert | update | delete} on [table_name]
[for each row|for each column]
[trigger_body]
[trigger_name]: Creates or replaces an existing
trigger with the trigger_name.
[before | after]: This specifies when the trigger
will be executed.
{insert | update | delete}: This specifies the
DML operation.
on [table_name]: This specifies the name of the table associated with the trigger.
[for each row]: This specifies a row-level trigger, i.e., the trigger will be executed
for each row being affected.
 Trigg
er
► BEFORE and AFTER of Trigger:
► BEFORE triggers run the trigger action before the triggering
statement is run.
► AFTER triggers run the trigger action after the triggering statement
is run.

► New is a keyword refers to the row that is getting affected

 Trigg
er
► BEFORE and AFTER of Trigger:
► BEFORE triggers run the trigger action before the triggering
statement is run.
► AFTER triggers run the trigger action after the triggering statement
is run.
 Trigg
er
► Drop Trigger:
► Remove the triggers from the
database
 Trigg
er
► Display Trigger:
► Show or display the triggers from the
database
 Trigger
Example
CREATE TABLE student_detail (
stud_id int NOT NULL,
Lasinserted Time,
PRIMARY KEY (stud_id) );
TRIGGER
DELIMITER //
Create Trigger after_insert_details
AFTER INSERT ON student ► DELIMITER is the
marker for the end of
FOR EACH ROW each commmand you
send to the mysql
BEGIN command line.
INSERT INTO student_detail VALUES ► Delimiter // can be used
to change the statement
(new.rno,CURTIME()); from semicolon to //
END //
DELIMITER ;
 Trigger
Example
► Example:
► Given Student Report Database, in which student marks
assessment is recorded.
► In such schema, create a trigger so that the total and
average of specified marks is automatically inserted
whenever a record is insert.
► Here, as trigger will invoke before record is inserted so,
BEFORE Tag can be used.
Trigger
Example

create trigger stud_marks

before INSERT
on Student
for each row
set Student.total = Student.subj1 + Student.subj2 +
Student.subj3, Student.per = Student.total * 60 / 100;
Trigger Example
 Trigg
►
er
Create a table customer_details (cust_id , cust_name, address).
create table customer_details(cust_id int,cust_name varchar(30),address
varchar(30));
► Create a trigger whenever a new record is inserted in the
customer_details table.
create trigger tri
after insert on customer_details
for each
row
begin
dbms_output.put_line('A row is
inserted'); end;
insert into
customer_details(cust_id,cust_name,addre
 Trigg
er
► Create a table emp_details (empid (unique), empname, salary)
► Create a trigger to display a message when a user enters a value >
20000 in the salary field of emp_details table.
create trigger trig
after insert on
emp_details for each
row
when(new.salary>200
00) begin
dbms_output.put_line('Salary is greater
than 20000'); end;
insert into
emp_details(empid,empname,salary)values(2,'ale
exam
ple
► CREATE TABLE account (acct_num INT, amount DECIMAL(10,2));
► CREATE TRIGGER ins_sum BEFORE INSERT ON account
FOR EACH ROW SET @sum = @sum + NEW.amount;
► The CREATE TRIGGER statement creates a trigger named
ins_sum that is associated with the account table.
► The keyword BEFORE indicates the trigger action time. In this case,
the trigger activates before each row inserted into the table.
► The other permitted keyword here is AFTER. Within the trigger
body, the OLD and NEW keywords enable you to access columns in
the rows affected by a trigger. OLD and NEW are MySQL
extensions to triggers; they are not case- sensitive.
► OLD-REFER TO A VALUE FROM ORIGINAL ROW
► NEW-REFER TO A VALUE IN THE NEW ROW
For each row-new and old

► The statement following FOR EACH ROW defines the trigger body;
► that is, the statement to execute each time the trigger activates,
which occurs once for each row affected by the triggering event.
► In the example, the trigger body is a simple SET that accumulates
into a user
variable the values inserted into the amount column.
► The statement refers to the column as NEW.amount which means
“the value of the amount column to be inserted into the new row.”
► To use the trigger, set the accumulator variable to zero, execute an
INSERT
statement, and then see what value the variable has afterward:
exam
ple
exam
ple
exam
ple
Example-inserting data into
tbstudent
Example-inserting data into
tbstudent
Example-after update
Example-after delete
Trigger Uses
 Modul
e3
► SQL DML (Data Manipulation Language) - SQL queries on single and
multiple tables, Nested queries (correlated and non-correlated),
Aggregation and grouping, Views, assertions, Triggers,
► SQL data types.
► Physical Data Organization - Review of terms: physical and logical
records, blocking factor, pinned and unpinned organization. Heap
files, Indexing, Single level indices, numerical examples, Multi-level
indices, numerical examples, B-Trees & B+-Trees (structure only,
algorithms not required), Extendible Hashing, Indexing on multiple
keys – grid files.

Page
3
Physical Data Organization
 Outli
ne
► It’s all about disks! That’s why we always draw
databases as
► Databases typically stored physically as files of records on
magnetic disks
► Three primary methods for organizing file records on
disk
► Unordered records
► Ordered records

► Hashed records

► The DBMS software can then retrieve, update and process this
data as needed
► Storing data on a disk
► Record Layout
Storage
hierarchy
► primary storage:
► Fastest media but volatile
► cache, main memory
► Fast access and limited storage capacity
► secondary storage: next level in hierarchy, non-volatile,
moderately fast access
time
► also called on-line storage
► E.g. flash memory, magnetic disks
► tertiary storage: lowest level in hierarchy, non-volatile, slow
access time
► also called off-line storage
► E.g. magnetic tape, optical storage
Storage
hierarchy
Registers Why a
hierarchy?
Cach
e

Memor
y

Dis
k

Tap
e
Storage Organization of
Databases
► Persistent data-large amount of data must persist over a long
period. part of this data is accessed and processed repeatedly
during this period
► Transient data persists only for a limited time.
► Exists only during program execution
► Most databases are stored permanently on magnetic disk storage
► File organization
► Determines how records are physically placed on the disk
► Determines how records are accessed
► primary File organization
► determines how the file records are physically placed on disk
and hence how the records can be accessed
Primary file Organization of
Databases
► several primary File organization

► Heap file(unordered file)-places the records on disk in no

particular order by appending new records at the end of the file.
► Sorted file(sequential file)-keeps the records ordered, by
the value of the particular sort field
► Hashed file uses a hash function applied to a particular field
called hash key to determine the placement of the record on
disk.
► B-trees-uses tree structures
Secondary storage
devices
► Hard disk drive

► Magnetic disks are used to store large amount of data.

► Basic unit of data stored on the disk is a single bit of
information
► Bits (ones and zeros)
► Grouped into bytes or characters
► Disk capacity measures storage size
► Disks may be single or double-sided
► Concentric circles called tracks
► Tracks divided into blocks or sectors
► Disk packs
► Cylinder
Secondary storage
devices
► Hard disk drive

► Magnetic disks are used to store large

amounts of data.
► Basic unit of data stored on the disk is a
single bit of information
► Bits (ones and zeros)
► Grouped into bytes or characters
► Disk capacity measures storage size
► Disks may be single or double-sided
► Concentric circles called tracks
► Tracks divided into blocks or sectors
► Disk packs-Cylinder
Hard disk
A typical hard drive

Figure 16.1 (a) A single-sided disk with read/write hardware

(b) A disk pack with read/write hardware
A typical hard drive

Figure 16.2 Different sector organizations on disk (a) Sectors subtending a

fixed angle
(b) Sectors maintaining a uniform recording density
 Performance
measures of Disk
► Access time – the time it takes from when a read or write request is issued to
when data
transfer begins. Consists of:
► Seek time – time it takes to reposition the arm over the correct track.
► Average seek time is 1/2 the worst case seek time.
► Would be 1/3 if all tracks had the same number of sectors, and we ignore
the time to start and stop arm movement
► 4 to 10 milliseconds on typical disks
► Rotational latency – time it takes for the sector to be accessed to appear
under the head.
► Average latency is 1/2 of the worst case latency.
► 4 to 11 milliseconds on typical disks (5400 to 15000 r.p.m.)
► Data-transfer rate – the rate at which data can be retrieved from or stored to
the disk.
► 25 to 100 MB per second max rate, lower for inner tracks
► Multiple disks may share a controller, so rate that controller can handle is also
important
► E.g. SATA: 150 MB/sec, SATA-II 3Gb (300 MB/sec)
► Ultra 320 SCSI: 320 MB/s, SAS (3 to 6 Gb/sec)
Placing File Records on Disk
Physical files and
logical file
► Logical files
► Logical files do not contain data.
► They contain a description of records that are found in one or more
physical files.
► A logical file is a view or representation of one or more physical files.
► Logical files that contain more than one format are referred to as multi-
format logical files.
► Physical files:
► Physical files contain the actual data that is stored on the system and a
description of how data is to be presented to or received from a
program.
► They contain only one record format and one or more members.
Physical files and
logical file
Data
organization
► Data organization refers to the organization of data of a file into
records ,
blocks and access structures.
► Access method refers to the group of operations that can be
applied to easily access the data.
► The database is stored as a collection of files in Disk.
► Disk data is stored in the form of blocks
► To read data stored in blocks ,entire block is
read and copied to RAM
► Blocks can be
► fixed sized block

► Variable sized blocks

Files, Fixed-Length Records, and
Variable-Length Records
► The database is stored as a collection of files.
► Each file is a sequence of records.
► A record is a sequence of fields.
► Records usually describe entities and their attributes.

► A collection of field names and their corresponding

data types constitutes a record type or record
format definition
► In many cases, all records in a file are of the same
record type.
► If every record in the file has exactly the same size (in
bytes), the file is said to be made up of fixed-length
records.
Fixed-length
fields
► All field lengths and offsets are constant
► Computed from schema, stored in the system catalog

► Example:
CREATE TABLE User(uid INT, name CHAR(20), age INT, salary FLOAT);

0 4 24 28 32
154 Ram (padded with 35 25632.5
space)
Files, Fixed-Length Records, and
Variable-Length Records

► Fixed length record with 71 bytes

► The file records are of the same record type, but one or
more of the fields are of varying size (variable-length
fields).
► For example, the Name field of EMPLOYEE can be a
variable-length field.
► 2 Variable length record,with
seperator
Files, Fixed-Length Records, and Variable-Length Records

► Variable length record with with three types of separator,(null

values allowed)
Spanned versus
Unspanned Records
► The records may be of fixed size or may be variable in length. One
block may contain multiple records.
► Unspanned Records :
► If a record is stored in a single block, it is called an unspanned
record.
► When many records are restricted to fit within one block due to
their small
size then such records are called Unspanned Records.
► Spanned Records :
► Part of the record is stored in one block and the rest in
another block it is spanned record
► When (portions of ) a single record may lie in different blocks,
due to their large size, then such records are called Spanned
Records.
UnSpanned Records
Spanned Records
Spanned versus
Unspanned Records
 Record Blocking –bfr for Fixed
length Records
► Blocking factor rate (bfr) is the number of records fit per
block,
► block size is B bytes

► fixed-length records of size R bytes

► For spanned
⎡ records,
►
bfr =(B/R⎤ (ceiling function) rounds the value x up to
the next integer.

bfr = ⎣B/R⎦ records per block (floor function)

► For unspanned records
►

rounds down the number x to an integer.

Record Blocking and Spanned versus
Unspanned Records
► Suppose that the block size is B bytes.

► we can fit bfr = ⎣B/R⎦ records per block

► For a file of fixed-length records of size R bytes, with B ≥ R,

► where the ⎣(x)⎦ (floor function) rounds down the number x to an

integer.
► The value bfr is called the blocking factor rate for the file.
► In general, R may not divide B exactly, so we have some unused
space in each block equal to B − (bfr * R) bytes

► To utilize this unused space, we can store part of a record on one

block and the rest on another.
Number of Blocks for spanned organization
Number of Blocks for unspanned organization

bfr = ⎣B/R⎦ records per block

Record Blocking -
Unspanned Records
► If records are not allowed to cross block boundaries, the
organization is called
unspanned.
► This is used with fixed-length records having B > R because it
makes each record start at a known location in the block,
simplifying record processing.
► For variable-length records, either a spanned or an
unspanned
organization can be used.
► If the average record is large, it is advantageous to use spanning to
reduce the lost space in each block.
Find the blocking factor and number of blocks required to
store data in a disk?

bfr = ⎣B/R⎦ records per block

example1
Example 2
PINNED AND UN PINNED
RECORDS
► A record is said to be pinned down or pinned record if there
exists a
pointer to it somewhere in the database.
► For example, when a table look-up approach is used to locate a
record, the table contains a pointer to the record, and the
record becomes pinned down.
► The pinned records cannot be moved without reason randomly
because in that case the pointers pointing to these records will
dangle.
► Any movement of pinned records should be associated with
appropriate
modification of the pointers.
► In fact, the file organization method which maintains pointers
to pinned
records appropriately modifies these pointers whenever the
PINNED AND UN PINNED
RECORDS
► Pinned Records and Blocks
► 'pinned' means if the block cannot be written back to disk
safety
► indicated by a bit located in the header of the block
► To write a pinned block back to disk we need to 'unpin' the
block
► Unswizzle any pointers associated to it.
PINNED AND UN PINNED
PAGES
 Modul
e3
► SQL DML (Data Manipulation Language) - SQL queries on single and
multiple tables, Nested queries (correlated and non-correlated),
Aggregation and grouping, Views, assertions, Triggers,
► SQL data types.
► Physical Data Organization - Review of terms: physical and logical
records, blocking factor, pinned and unpinned organization. Heap
files, Indexing, Single level indices, numerical examples, Multi-level
indices, numerical examples, B-Trees & B+-Trees (structure only,
algorithms not required), Extendible Hashing, Indexing on multiple
keys – grid files.

Page
3
Indexing
Heap files

Page
3
Heap files

Page
3
Heap Files
Why Indexing is
used?

• Indexing helps you to reduce the total number of I/O operations needed to
retrieve that data.
Indexi
ng
► Indexing is used to optimize the performance of a database by
minimizing the
number of disk accesses required when a query is processed.
► The index is a type of data structure. It is used to locate and access
the data in a database table quickly.
► Indexing is a data structure technique which allows you to quickly
retrieve
records from a database file.
► An Index is a small table having only two columns.
► The first column comprises a copy of the primary or candidate key
of a table.
► Its second column contains a set of pointers for holding the address
of the
disk block where that specific key value stored.
Index
Structures
► The index structures are additional files on disk that provides an
alternative ways to access the records without affecting
the physical placement of records in the primary data file on disk,
► Access of records are based on the indexing fields
that are used to construct the index.
► Any fields /attribute of the table can be used to
create an index.
► A variety of indexes are possible ,each of them uses a particular
data structures to speed up the search.
Structure of an Index in Database
Indexing methods in Database
Types of Indexing
Primary Indexing
 Primary Indexing
► Primary Indexing is applied to an ordered file of records
► If the index is created on the basis of the primary key of
the table, then it is known as primary indexing.
► These primary keys are unique to each record and contain 1:1
relations between the records.
► Primary Index is an ordered file that is fixed in length size with two
fields.
► The first field is the same as the primary key and the second, field is
pointed to that specific data block
► As primary keys are stored in sorted order, the performance of
the searching operation is quite efficient.
► There is one index entry in the index file for each block
► The primary index can be classified into two types: Dense index
and Sparse index.
Primary Indexing
Page Presentation
205 title
Primary Indexing

Sparse
Index

1
5
9
13
Index Table

No of entries in the index table = No of blocks in the Hard

Disk
Search Time = log2 N+ 1 where N = No entries in the index
table
 Dense Index
► In a dense index, a record is created for every search key valued in the
database.
► Dense indexing helps you to search faster but needs more space to store
index records.
► In dense indexing, records contain search key value and points to the real
record on the disk.
Sparse Index
► The sparse index is an index record that
appears for
only some of the values in the file.
► Sparse Index helps you to resolve the issues of
dense indexing.
► In sparse indexing technique, a range of index
columns stores the same data block address,
and when data needs to be retrieved, this
block address will be fetched.
► Sparse indexing method stores index records
for
only some search key values.
► It needs less space, less maintenance overhead
for insertion, and deletions but it is slower
compared to the dense index for locating
records.
Examples
Examples
Examples
Examples
Primary Index
► Suppose that we have an ordered file with 300,000 records stored
on a disk with block size 4,096 bytes. File records are of fixed size
and are unspanned, with record length 100 bytes. How many
blocks are needed for the file? Approximately, how many block
accesses are required for a binary search in this file?
► If Index table entry = 15 B ( Key + Pointer). how many block
accesses are required for a binary search in this file?
Without Index
► Ordered file with records r = 300000
► Disk block size = B = 4096 bytes
► File records are fixed size and unspanned
► Record length = R = 100 bytes
► Blocking factor bfr = [B/R] (floor) = 4096/100 = 40 records per
block
► The number of blocks needed for the file = [r/bfr] (upper
ceiling) =
300000/40= 7500 blocks
► A binary search on the data file = log2(7500) (upper ceiling) =
13 block access
With Index
► total bytes in each entry of index file = 15 bytes
► bfr for index file is 4096/15 = 273(flooring)
► total number of index entries = total no of blocks
► number of index blocks for the file = [number of blocks for the file
/bfr] (ceiling)
► The number of index blocks = [7500/273] = 28
► To perform binary search on index file: log2(28) = 5
► To search for a record, we need one additional access to read the
data block, thus we need 5+1 = 6 block accesses using a binary
search
Clustering Indexing
Clustering Index
► A clustered index can be defined as an ordered data file.
► In a clustered index, records themselves are stored in the Index
and not pointers.
► Sometimes the index is created on non-primary key columns which may not
be unique for each record.
► In this case, to identify the record faster, we will group two or more columns
to get the
Unique values and create an index out of them. This method is called a
clustering index.
► The records which have similar characteristics are grouped, and indexes are
created for these groups.
► suppose a company contains several employees in each department.
Suppose we use a clustering index, where all employees who belong to the
same Dept_ID are considered within a single cluster, and index pointers
point to the cluster as a whole. Here Dept_Id is a non-unique key.
Clustering Index
Clustering Index
► Clustering field is an ordered file with two fields
► first field is the clustering field of the data file
► second field is the block pointer
► There is one entry in the clustering index for each of the distinct values of
the clustering field.
► It is a non-dense index/sparse index
► Cluster index is a type of index that sorts the data rows in the table
on their key values.
► In the Database, there is only one clustered index per table.
► A clustered index defines the order in which data is stored in the
table which can be sorted in only one way. So, there can be only a
single clustered index for every table
Secondary Indexing
 Secondary Index
► Data file is unsorted
► secondary index may be created on a field that is a
► candidate key and has a unique value in every record
► or on a non key field with duplicate values
► Index file is an ordered file with two fields
► First field is a key or non key
► second field is either a block pointer or record pointer
► It is an example of dense index
► There will be numerous records in the data file that have the
same value for indexing field
► The block pointer in index entry points to a disk block, which
contains a set of record pointers
► Each record pointer in that disk block points to one of the data
file records
Secondary Index
► In secondary indexing, to reduce the size of mapping, another level of
indexing is
introduced.
► In this method, the huge range for the columns is selected initially
so that the mapping size of the first level becomes small.
► Then each range is further divided into smaller ranges.
► The mapping of the first level is stored in the primary memory,
so that address fetch is faster.
► The mapping of the second level and actual data are stored in
the secondary memory (hard disk)
Secondary Index
Secondary
Index

Searching
Mechanism
► If you want to find the record of roll 111
in the diagram, then it will search the
highest entry which is smaller than or
equal to 111 in the first level index. It
will get 100 at this level.
► Then in the second index level, again
it does max (111) <= 111 and gets
110. Now using the address 110, it
goes to the data block and starts
searching each record till it gets 111.
► This is how a search is performed in
this method. Inserting, updating or
deleting is also done in the same
manner
Secondary Index
► A secondary index provides a logical ordering on the records by the
indexing
field.
► The block pointer in the index entry points to a disk block, which
contains a set of record pointers
► Record pointer pointing to each of the repeating blocks
► Each record pointer in that disk block points to one of the data file
records
► If we access the records in order of the entries in the secondary
index , we get them in order of the indexing field
► The primary and clustering indexes assume that the field used for
the physical
ordering of records in the file is the same as the indexing field
Example

UNORDERED FILESECONDARY INDEXING

It is an example of a dense index
Secondary Index
Secondary Index
► Consider a file of 16384 records. Each record is 32 bytes long and its
key field is of size 6 bytes. The file is ordered on a non-key field, and
the file organization is unspanned. The file is stored in a file system
with a block size of 1024 bytes, and the size of a block pointer is 10
bytes. If the secondary index is built on the key field of the file, and a
multi-level index scheme is used to store the secondary index, find
the number of first-level and second-level blocks in the multi-level
index.
 Secondary Index
► Number of records in file r= 16384
► Record size R= 32 bytes
► Block Size on file system B= 1024 bytes
► Key Size = 6 bytes
► Size of Block Pointer = 10 bytes
► Size of a record for index Entry = 10 + 6 = 16
► Number of blocks in first level = ceil(Number of records in file*recordsize
for index file)/Block Size))
= (16384 * 16)/(1024)
= 256
Secondary Index
► In second level, there will be 256 * 16 entries.
Number of blocks in second level = (Number of entries) / (Block Size)
= (256 * 16) / 1024
=4
summary
summary
► Primary Index is an ordered file which is fixed length size with two
fields.
► The primary Indexing is also further divided into
two types 1)Dense Index 2)Sparse Index.
► In a dense index, a record is created for every search key
valued in the database.
► A sparse indexing method helps you to resolve the issues of
dense Indexing.
► The secondary Index in DBMS is an indexing method whose
search key specifies an order different from the sequential
order of the file.
► Clustering index is defined as an order data file.
► Multilevel Indexing is created when a primary index does not
fit in memory.
Types of Indexing
Multilevel Indexing
 Multilevel Index
► Multilevel Indexing in Database is created when a primary index
does not fit
in memory.
► In this type of indexing method, you can reduce the number of
disk accesses to short any record and kept on a disk as a
sequential file and create a sparse base on that file.
► multilevel index considers the index file as the first (or
base)level of a multilevel index
► we can create a primary index for the first level;this index to the
first level is called the second level of the multilevel index
► second level is a primary index,ie second level has one entry
for each block of the first level.This process is repeated for the
second level
Page Prof. Sarju S, Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
241 SJCET Palai
Multilevel Index
► multilevel index considers the index file as the first (or base)level of
a multilevel
index
► we can create a primary index for the first level; this index to
the first level is called the second level of the multilevel index
► second level is a primary index, i.e. second level has one entry for
each block of
the first level. This process is repeated for the second level
► third level index ,which is a primary index for the second level, has
an entry for each second level block.
► repeat the preceding process until all the entries of some
index level fit in
a single block.
► All index levels are physically ordered files
Multilevel Index

► To retain the benefits of using multilevel indexing, while reducing

index insertion and deletion problems, designers adopted a
multilevel index called a dynamic multilevel index that leaves
some space in each of its blocks for inserting new entries
Multilevel Index
Multilevel Index
Multilevel Index
Multilevel Index
Multilevel Index
Multilevel Index
University questions
bfr of Data File=floor(B/R)
Of Level 1 Index File
University questions
University questions
University questions
University questions
University questions
University questions
University questions
University questions
University questions
Dynamic Multilevel Indexes Using B-Tree
 Dynamic Multilevel Indexes
Using B-Tree
► Tree Structure: -

► A tree is formed of nodes. Each node except the root, has one
parent node and 0 or more child nodes
► The root node has no parent. A node with no child nodes is a leaf
node
► A non-leaf node is an internal node. The level of a node is always
one higher than its parent. The level of the root node is 0.
► A subtree of a node consists of that node and all its descendant
nodes
► If the leaf nodes are at different levels, it is an unbalanced tree
► B-tree nodes are kept 50-100% full
► Pointers to the data blocks are stored at internal and leaf nodes for
B-trees
► Pointers to the data blocks are stored at leaf nodes for B+ trees
 Dynamic Multilevel Indexes
►
Using B-Tree
Search trees:
► A search tree is a special type of tree used to guide the search for a
record given the
value of one of the record’s fields.
► A search tree of order p is a tree such that each node contains p-1 search
values
and p pointers.
► <P1, K1, P2, K2, ….Pq-1, Kq-1, Pq> where q<=p.
K1,K2,…Kq-1 are search values. Each Pi is a pointer to a child node or null
► We can use search tree as a mechanism to search for records on disk.
► Two constraints must hold all the time:
► Within each node K1 < K2 < K3 < X < Ki
► For all values of X in the subtree pointed at by Pi
We have; Ki-1 < X < Ki
Dynamic Multilevel Indexes
Using B-Tree
Node in a
search tree
Search
trees
Dynamic Multilevel Indexes
Using B-Tree
► P1 –Subtree
Pr-actual record/data file
Dynamic Multilevel Indexes
Using B-Tree

► Balanced-leaf node at same level

► Order 3 ,p-1 search values in a node
► Values <5 in first subtree
► Values between 5&8 in second node,
► Values >8 in third node
Dynamic Multilevel Indexes
Using B-Tree
Dynamic Multilevel Indexes
Using B-Tree
 Dynamic Multilevel Indexes
Using B-Tree
► Fig. (b) illustrate a B-Tree with p = 3.

► All search key values are unique, as it is a key field

► If we use a B-Tree on a nonkey field, we must change the file pointer
Pri to point to a block or a cluster of blocks that contain the pointers
to the records. –
► The B-Tree starts with a single root node (which is also a leaf node) at
level 0
► Once the root node is full with p-1 search key values, we
attempt to insert another entry in the tree; the root node splits
into two nodes at level 1.
► Only the middle value is kept at the root node, the rest of the
values are split
evenly on other nodes
► When a nonroot node is full, and a new entry is inserted into it, that
Dynamic Multilevel Indexes Using
B+ Tree
► The B+ tree is a balanced binary search tree.
► It follows a multi-level index format.
► In the B+ tree, leaf nodes denote actual data pointers.
► B+ tree ensures that all leaf nodes remain at the same height.
► In the B+ tree, the leaf nodes are linked using a link list.
► Data pointers stored only at the leaf nodes.
► Therefore, a B+ tree can support random access as well as
sequential access..
► Leaf nodes have an entry for every value of the search field, and a
data pointer to the record if search field is a key field
Structure of a B+ Tree
Structure of a B+ Tree
Structure of a B+ Tree
► In the B+ tree, every leaf node is at equal distance from the root node.
► The B+ tree is of the order n where n is fixed for every B+ tree.
► It contains an internal node and leaf node.
► Internal node
► An internal node of the B+ tree can contain at least n/2 record pointers except
the root node.
► At most, an internal node of the tree contains n pointers.
► Leaf node
► The leaf node of the B+ tree can contain at least n/2 record pointers and n/2
key values.
► At most, a leaf node contains n record pointer and n key values.
► Every leaf node of the B+ tree contains one block pointer P to point to next leaf
node.
Node Structure of a B+ Tree
Properties of a leaf Node
Structure of a B+ Tree
Properties of a leaf Node Structure of
a B+ Tree
Properties of a Non leaf Node
Structure of a B+ Tree
Structure of an internal node of
the B+ Tree
Example of a B+ Tree
Example of a B+ Tree
Example of a B+ Tree
Example of a B+ Tree
 Searching a record in a B+ Tree

► Suppose we have to search 55 in the below B+ tree structure. First,

we will fetch for the intermediary node which will direct to the leaf
node that can contain a record for 55.
► So, in the intermediary node, we will find a branch between 50 and
75 nodes. Then at the end, we will be redirected to the third leaf
node. Here DBMS will perform a sequential search to find 55.
 Inserting a record in a B+ Tree

► Suppose we want to insert a record 60 in the below structure. It will go to the 3rd leaf
node after 55. It is a balanced tree, and a leaf node of this tree is already full, so we
cannot insert 60 there.
► In this case, we have to split the leaf node, so that it can be inserted into tree without
affecting the fill factor, balance and order.
► The 3rd leaf node has the values (50, 55, 60, 65, 70) and its current root node is 50.
We will split the leaf node of the tree in the middle so that its balance is not altered.
So we can group (50, 55) and (60, 65, 70) into 2 leaf nodes.
► If these two has to be leaf nodes, the intermediate node cannot branch from 50. It
should have 60 added to it, and then we can have pointers to a new leaf node.
Inserting a record in a B+ Tree
 Deleting a record in a B+ Tree
► Suppose we want to delete 60 from the above example. In this case, we have to
remove 60 from the intermediate node as well as from the 4th leaf node too. If we
remove it from the intermediate node, then the tree will not satisfy the rule of the B+
tree. So we need to modify it to have a balanced tree.

► After deleting node 60 from above B+ tree and re-arranging the nodes, it will show as
follows:
Hashing
 Hashing
 In DBMS, hashing is a technique to directly search the location
of desired data on the disk without using an index structure.
 Hashing method is used to index and retrieves items in a database
as it is faster to search that specific item using the shorter hashed
key instead of using its original value.
 Data is stored in the form of data blocks whose address is
generated by applying a hash function in the memory location
where these records are stored known as a data block or data
bucket.
► Data bucket – Data buckets are memory locations where the
records are stored. It is also known as a Unit Of Storage.
► Hash function: A hash function, is a mapping function that maps
all the set of search keys to the address where actual records are
placed.
Internal Hashing

► For internal files, hashing is typically

implemented as a hash table through the use
of an array of records
► the array index range is from 0 to M – 1
► we have M slots whose addresses
correspond to the array indexes.
► We choose a hash function that transforms
the hash field value into an integer between 0
and M − 1.
► One common hash function is the
h(K) = K mod M function, which returns the
remainder of an integer hash field value K
after division by M;
this value is then used for the record
address.
► K=25 ,M=100 ,25 mod 100=25,125 mod
100=25
Internal Hashing

► K=21,,M=7
21 MOD 7=0
► 23 mod 7=2
Other Hashing Techniques
Other Hashing Techniques
External Hashing
Extendible Hashing
Dynamic Hashing
Dynamic Hashing
Linear Hashing
Grid Files
Grid Files
 Thank You

Disclaimer - This document contains images/texts from various internet sources. Copyright belongs to the respective
content creators. Document is compiled exclusively for study purpose and shall not be used for commercial purpose.

Prof.Sarju S,Prof.Smitha Jacob,Department of CSE,SJCET,Palai