Part I : The Lymphatic System

one

• Consists of two parts:

1. Lymphatic vessels
2. Lymphoid tissues and organs
• Lymphatic system functions
– Transports escaped fluids from the cardiovascular
system back to the blood
– Plays essential roles in body defense and resistance
to disease

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 Capillary Beds Distribution of metabolic
processes in the body
Recall that the hydrostatic and osmotic pressures operating
at capillary beds force fluid out of the blood at the arterial
ends of the beds , upstream, hydrostatic pressure, PUSH
Force, and cause most of the expelled fluid to be reabsorbed
at the venous ends down stream, oncotic pressure, or PULL
Force.

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Lymphatic Vessels (1 of 5)
• Lymph consists of excess tissue fluid and plasma proteins
carried by lymphatic vessels
• If fluids are not picked up, edema occurs as fluid
accumulates in tissues
• Lymphatic vessels (lymphatics) pick up excess fluid
(lymph) and return it to the blood

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Figure 12.1 Relationship of Lymphatic
Vessels to Blood Vessels

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Lymphatic Vessels (2 of 5)
• Lymphatic vessels (lymphatics)
– Form a one-way system
– Lymph flows only toward the heart

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Lymphatic Vessels (3 of 5)
• Lymph capillaries
– Weave between tissue cells and blood capillaries
– Walls overlap to form flaplike minivalves
– Fluid leaks into lymph capillaries
– Capillaries are anchored to connective tissue by
filaments
– Higher pressure on the inside closes minivalves
– Fluid is forced along the vessel

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 Valve System- Reduces Back flow
varicose veins
This is very similar to the way that valves in veins work to
ensure blood returns to the heart, despite being under low
pressure.

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Figure 12.2a Special Structural Features
of Lymphatic Capillaries

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Figure 12.2b Special Structural
Features of Lymphatic Capillaries

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Lymphatic Vessels (4 of 5)
• Lymphatic collecting vessels
– Collect lymph from lymph capillaries
– Return fluid to circulatory veins near the heart
▪ Right lymphatic duct drains the lymph from the right
arm and the right side of the head and thorax
▪ Thoracic duct drains lymph from rest of body

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Figure 12.3 Distribution of Lymphatic
Vessels and Lymph Nodes

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Lymphatic Vessels (5 of 5)
• Lymphatic vessels are similar to veins of the
cardiovascular system
– Thin-walled
– Larger vessels have valves
– Low-pressure, pumpless system
• Lymph transport is aided by:
– Milking action of skeletal muscles
– Pressure changes in thorax during breathing
– Smooth muscle in walls of lymphatics

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Lymph Nodes (1 of 4)
• Lymph nodes filter lymph before it is returned to the blood
• Harmful materials that are filtered include
– Bacteria
– Viruses
– Cancer cells
– Foreign substances

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Lymph Nodes (2 of 4)
• Defense cells within lymph nodes
– Macrophages—engulf and destroy bacteria, viruses,
and other foreign substances in lymph
– Lymphocytes—respond to foreign substances in
lymph

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Lymph Nodes (3 of 4)
• Most lymph nodes are kidney-shaped, less than
1 inch long, and buried in connective tissue
– Surrounded by a capsule
– Divided into compartments by trabeculae
• Cortex (outer part)
– Contains follicles—collections of lymphocytes
– Germinal centers enlarge when antibodies are released
by plasma cells
• Medulla (inner part)
– Contains phagocytic macrophages

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Figure 12.4 Structure of a Lymph Node

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Lymph Nodes (4 of 4)
• Flow of lymph through nodes
– Lymph enters the convex side through afferent
lymphatic vessels
– Lymph flows through a number of sinuses inside the
node
– Lymph exits through efferent lymphatic vessels
– Because there are fewer efferent than afferent
vessels, flow is slowed

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Other Lymphoid Organs (1 of 6)
• Several other lymphoid organs contribute to lymphatic
function (in addition to the lymph nodes)
– Spleen
– Thymus
– Tonsils
– Peyer’s patches
– Appendix

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Figure 12.5 Lymphoid Organs

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Other Lymphoid Organs (2 of 6)
• Spleen
– Located on the left side of the abdomen
– Filters and cleans blood of bacteria, viruses, debris
– Provides a site for lymphocyte proliferation and
immune surveillance
– Destroys worn-out red blood cells
– Stores platelets and acts as a blood reservoir

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Other Lymphoid Organs (3 of 6)
• Thymus
– Found overlying the heart
– Functions at peak levels only during youth

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 THYMUS
Recall that the thymus produces hormones, thymosin
and others, that function in the programming of T
lymphocytes so they can carry out their protective roles
in the body. Program or Train T- Cell:
CD 4- Helper T cells
CD 8- Cytotoxic T Cell- Kill Cancer Cells or other Foreign
substances: Bacteria, Viruses, ect.

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Other Lymphoid Organs (4 of 6)
• Tonsils
– Small masses of lymphoid tissue deep to the
mucosa surrounding the pharynx (throat)
– Trap and remove bacteria and other foreign
pathogens entering the throat
– Tonsillitis results when the tonsils become congested
with bacteria

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Other Lymphoid Organs (5 of 6)
• Peyer’s patches
– Found in the wall of the small intestine
– Similar lymphoid follicles are found in the appendix
– Macrophages capture and destroy bacteria in the
intestine

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Other Lymphoid Organs (6 of 6)
• Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
– Includes:
▪ Peyer’s patches
▪ Tonsils
▪ Appendix
– Acts as a sentinel to protect respiratory and digestive
tracts from foreign matter

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Part II : Body Defenses
2

• Two mechanisms that make up the immune system

defend us from foreign materials
1. Innate (nonspecific) defense system
2. Adaptive (specific) defense system
• Immunity—specific resistance to disease
• Immune system is a functional system rather than an
organ system in an anatomical sense

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Figure 12.6 An Overview of the Body’s
Defenses
The Immune System

Innate (nonspecific) defense Innate (nonspecific) defense Adaptive (specific) defense

mechanisms mechanisms mechanisms

First line of defense Second line of defense Third line of defense

• Skin • Phagocytic cells • Lymphocytes

• Mucous membranes • Natural killer cells • Antibodies
• Secretions of skin and • Antimicrobial proteins • Macrophages and other
mucous membranes • The inflammatory response antigen-presenting cells
• Fever

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Body Defenses
• Innate (nonspecific) defense system
– Responds immediately to protect body from all
foreign materials
– Includes intact skin, mucous membranes,
inflammatory response, various proteins

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Innate (Nonspecific) Body Defenses
• Adaptive (specific) defense system
– Fights invaders that get past the innate system
– Specific defense is required for each type of invader
– The highly specific resistance to disease is immunity

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Table 12.1 Summary of Innate
(Nonspecific) Body Defenses (1 of 3)
Surface membrane barriers—first line of defense

Category and associated Protective mechanism

elements
Intact skin (epidermis) Forms mechanical barrier that prevents entry of pathogens and other harmful
substances into body.
• Acid mantle Skin secretions make epidermal surface acidic, which inhibits bacterial growth; sebum
also contains bacteria-killing chemicals.
• Keratin Provides resistance against acids, alkalis, and bacterial enzymes.
Intact mucous membranes Form mechanical barrier that prevents entry of pathogens.
• Mucus Traps microorganisms in respiratory and digestive tracts.
• Nasal hairs Filter and trap microorganisms and other airborne particles in nasal passages.
• Cilia Propel debris-laden mucus away from lower respiratory passages.
• Gastric juice Contains concentrated hydrochloric acid and protein-digesting enzymes that destroy
pathogens in stomach.
• Acid mantle of vagina Inhibits growth of bacteria and fungi in female reproductive tract.
• Lacrimal secretion Continuously lubricate and cleanse eyes (tears) and oral cavity (saliva); contain
(tears); saliva lysozyme, an enzyme that destroys microorganisms.

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Table 12.1 Summary of Innate
(Nonspecific) Body Defenses (2 of 3)
Cellular and chemical defenses—second line of defense

Category and associated elements Protective mechanism

Phagocytes Engulf and destroy pathogens that breach surface

membrane barriers; macrophages also contribute to
immune response.
Natural killer cells Promote cell lysis by direct cell attack against virus-
infected or cancerous body cells; do not depend on
specific antigen recognition.
Inflammatory response Prevents spread of injurious agents to adjacent tissues,
disposes of pathogens and dead tissue cells, and
promotes tissue repair; releases chemical mediators that
attract phagocytes (and immune cells) to the area.

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Table 12.1 Summary of Innate
(Nonspecific) Body Defenses (3 of 3)
Cellular and chemical defenses—second line of defense

Category and associated elements Protective mechanism

Blank

Antimicrobial chemicals

• Complement Group of plasma proteins that lyses microorganisms,

enhances phagocytosis by opsonization, and intensifies
inflammatory response.
• Interferons Proteins released by virus-infected cells that protect
uninfected tissue cells from viral takeover; mobilize immune
system.
• Fluids with acid p H Normally acid pH inhibits bacterial growth; urine cleanses the
lower urinary tract as it flushes from the body.
Fever Systemic response triggered by pyrogens; high body
temperature inhibits multiplication of bacteria and enhances
body repair processes.

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Surface Membrane Barriers: First Line of
Defense
• Surface membrane barriers, such as the skin and mucous
membranes, provide the first line of defense against the
invasion of microorganisms
– Protective secretions produced by these membranes
▪ Acidic skin secretions inhibit bacterial growth
▪ Mucus traps microorganisms
▪ Gastric juices are acidic and kill pathogens
▪ Saliva and tears contain lysozyme (enzyme that
destroys bacteria)

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Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of
Defense (1 of 12)
• Cells and chemicals provide a second line of defense
– Natural killer cells and phagocytes
– Inflammatory response
– Chemicals that kill pathogens
– Fever

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Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of
Defense (2 of 12)
• Natural killer (NK) cells
– Roam the body in blood and lymph
– Lyse (burst) and kill cancer cells, virus-infected cells,
and some other non-specific targets
– Release chemicals called perforin and granzymes to
degrade target cell contents
– Release powerful inflammatory chemicals

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Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of
Defense (3 of 12)
• Inflammatory response
– Triggered when body tissues are injured
– Four most common indicators (cardinal signs) of acute
inflammation
1. Redness
2. Heat
3. Pain
4. Swelling (edema)

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Figure 12.7 Flowchart of Inflammatory
Events

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Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of
Defense (4 of 12)
• Inflammatory response
– Damaged cells release inflammatory chemicals
▪ Histamine
▪ Kinin
– These chemicals cause:
▪ Blood vessels to dilate
▪ Capillaries to become leaky
▪ Phagocytes and white blood cells to move into the
area (called positive chemotaxis)

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Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of
Defense (5 of 12)
• Functions of the inflammatory response
– Prevents spread of damaging agents to nearby areas
– Disposes of cell debris and pathogens
– Sets the stage for repair

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Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of
Defense (6 of 12)
• Process of the inflammatory response
1. Neutrophils migrate to the area of inflammation by
rolling along the vessel wall (following the scent of
chemicals from inflammation)
2. Neutrophils squeeze through the capillary walls by
diapedesis to sites of inflammation
3. Neutrophils gather in the precise site of tissue injury
(positive chemotaxis) and consume any foreign
material present

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Figure 12.8 Phagocyte Mobilization
During Inflammation

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Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of
Defense (7 of 12)
• Clotting proteins wall off damaged area with fibrin
• Local heat speeds metabolism and repair
• Phagocytes
– Cells such as neutrophils and macrophages engulf
foreign material by phagocytosis
– The phagocytic vesicle is fused with a lysosome, and
enzymes digest the cell’s contents

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Figure 12.9a Phagocytosis by a
Macrophage

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Figure 12.9b Phagocytosis by a
Macrophage (1 of 6)

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Figure 12.9b Phagocytosis by a
Macrophage (2 of 6)

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Figure 12.9b Phagocytosis by a
Macrophage (3 of 6)

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Figure 12.9b Phagocytosis by a
Macrophage (4 of 6)

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Figure 12.9b Phagocytosis by a
Macrophage (5 of 6)

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Figure 12.9b Phagocytosis by a
Macrophage (6 of 6)

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Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of
Defense (8 of 12)
• Antimicrobial proteins
– Enhance innate defenses by:
▪ Attacking microorganisms directly
▪ Hindering reproduction of microorganisms
– Most important types
▪ Complement proteins
▪ Interferon

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Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of
Defense (9 of 12)
• Antimicrobial proteins: complement proteins
– Complement refers to a group of at least 20 plasma
proteins that circulate in the plasma
– Complement is activated when these plasma proteins
encounter and attach to cells (known as complement
fixation)

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Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of
Defense (10 of 12)
• Antimicrobial proteins: complement proteins
– Membrane attack complexes (MACs), one result of
complement fixation, produce holes or pores in cells
▪ Pores allow water to rush into the cell
▪ Cell bursts (lyses)
– Activated complement enhances the inflammatory
response

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Figure 12.10 Activation of Complement,
Resulting in Lysis of a Target Cell

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Cells and Chemicals: Second Line
of Defense (11 of 12)
• Antimicrobial proteins: interferons
– Small proteins secreted by virus-infected cells
– Bind to membrane receptors on healthy cell surfaces
to interfere with the ability of viruses to multiply
– Do not help fight bacterial or fungal infections

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Cells and Chemicals: Second Line of
Defense (12 of 12)
• Fever
– Abnormally high body temperature is a systemic
response to invasion by microorganisms
– Hypothalamus regulates body temperature at 37°C elsius

(98.6°F )
ahrenheit

– The hypothalamus thermostat can be reset higher by

pyrogens (secreted by white blood cells)
– High temperatures inhibit the release of iron and zinc
(needed by bacteria) from the liver and spleen
– Fever also increases the speed of repair processes

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Adaptive Body Defenses (1 of 3)
• Adaptive body defenses are the body’s specific defense
system, or the third line of defense
– Immune response is the immune system’s response
to a threat
– Antigens are targeted and destroyed by antibodies

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Adaptive Body Defenses (2 of 3)
• Three aspects of adaptive defense
– Antigen specific—the adaptive defense system
recognizes and acts against particular foreign
substances
– Systemic—immunity is not restricted to the initial
infection site
– Memory—the adaptive defense system recognizes
and mounts a stronger attack on previously
encountered pathogens

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Adaptive Body Defenses (3 of 3)
• Two arms of the adaptive defense system
– Humoral immunity = antibody-mediated immunity
▪ Provided by antibodies present in body fluids
– Cellular immunity = cell-mediated immunity
▪ Targets virus-infected cells, cancer cells, and cells of
foreign grafts

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Antigens (1 of 3)
• Antigens (Ag) are any substance capable of exciting the
immune system and provoking an immune response
– Nonself antigens are foreign intruders
– Examples of common nonself antigens
▪ Foreign proteins provoke the strongest response
▪ Nucleic acids
▪ Large carbohydrates
▪ Some lipids
▪ Pollen grains
▪ Microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses)

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Antigens (2 of 3)
• Self-antigens
– Human cells have many protein and carbohydrate
molecules which are recognized as self
– Self-antigens do not trigger an immune response in
us but can be strongly antigenic to other people
– The presence of our cells in another person’s body
can trigger an immune response because they are
foreign
▪ Restricts donors for transplants

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Likewise, this explains why only people of compatible
blood types can donate blood to one another. Recall our
discussion of blood antigens.
Unit One. Depending on your individual blood type, one or
more blood antigen types may be self to your body, and
one or more may be non-self. For example, if you are
blood type A, type A antigen is self, but type B antigen is
non-self. However, in a person with type AB blood, both A
and B antigens are self-antigens.

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Antigens (3 of 3)
• Haptens, or incomplete antigens, are not antigenic by
themselves
– When they link up with our own proteins, the immune
system may recognize the combination as foreign and
respond with an attack
– Found in poison ivy, animal dander, detergents, hair
dyes, cosmetics

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Cells of the Adaptive Defense System:
An Overview (1 of 5)
• Crucial cells of the adaptive system
1. Lymphocytes—respond to specific antigens
▪ B lymphocytes (B cells) produce antibodies and
oversee humoral immunity
▪ T lymphocytes (T cells) constitute the cell-mediated
arm of the adaptive defenses; do not make
antibodies
2. Antigen-presenting cells (APCs)—help the
lymphocytes but do not respond to specific antigens

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Cells of the Adaptive Defense System:
An Overview (2 of 5)
• Lymphocytes
– Arise from hemocytoblasts of bone marrow
– Whether a lymphocyte matures into a B cell or T cell
depends on where it becomes immunocompetent
• Immunocompetence
– The capability to respond to a specific antigen by
binding to it with antigen-specific receptors that
appear on the lymphocyte’s surface

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Cells of the Adaptive Defense System:
An Overview (3 of 5)
• Lymphocytes
– T cells develop immunocompetence in the thymus and
oversee cell-mediated immunity
▪ Identify foreign antigens
▪ Those that bind self-antigens are destroyed
▪ Self-tolerance is important part of lymphocyte
“education”
– B cells develop immunocompetence in bone marrow
and provide humoral immunity

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Cells of the Adaptive Defense System:
An Overview (4 of 5)
• Lymphocytes are immunocompetent for specific antigens
• Genes determine what foreign substances immune system
recognizes and resists
• Immunocompetent T and B lymphocytes migrate to the
lymph nodes and spleen, where encounters with antigens
occur
• Differentiation from naïve cells into mature lymphocytes is
complete when they bind with recognized antigens
• Mature lymphocytes (especially T cells) circulate
continuously throughout the body

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Figure 12.11 Lymphocyte Differentiation
and Activation (1 of 4)

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Figure 12.11 Lymphocyte Differentiation
and Activation (2 of 4)

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Figure 12.11 Lymphocyte Differentiation
and Activation (3 of 4)

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Figure 12.11 Lymphocyte Differentiation
and Activation (4 of 4)

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Cells of the Adaptive Defense System:
An Overview (5 of 5)
• Antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
– Engulf antigens and then present fragments of them
on their own surfaces to be recognized by T cells
– Major types of cells behaving as APCs
▪ Dendritic cells
▪ Macrophages
▪ B lymphocytes
– Dendritic cells and macrophages present antigens to
activate T cells that release chemicals to activate
macrophages

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Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune
Response (1 of 11)
• B lymphocytes with specific receptors bind to a specific
antigen and are stimulated to continue their development
• The binding event sensitizes, or activates, the lymphocyte
to undergo clonal selection
• A large number of clones is produced (primary humoral
response)

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Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune
Response (2 of 11)
• Most of the B cell clone members (descendants) become
plasma cells
– Produce antibodies to destroy antigens
– Activity only lasts for 4 or 5 days
– Peak antibody levels occur about 10 days after the
response begins
• Some B cells become long-lived memory cells
– Secondary humoral response
– Provide immunological memory

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Figure 12.12 Clonal Selection of a B Cell

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Figure 12.13 Primary and Secondary
Humoral Responses to an Antigen

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Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune
Response (3 of 11)
• Active immunity
– Occurs when B cells encounter antigens and produce
antibodies
– Active immunity can be:
▪ Naturally acquired during bacterial and viral
infections
▪ Artificially acquired from vaccines

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Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune
Response (4 of 11)
• Active immunity
– Benefits of vaccines
▪ Spare the signs and symptoms of the disease that
would otherwise occur during the primary response
▪ Weakened antigens still stimulate antibody
production and promote immunological memory

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Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune
Response (5 of 11)
• Passive immunity
– Occurs when antibodies are obtained from serum of an
immune human or animal donor
▪ Naturally acquired from a mother to her fetus or in
the breast milk
▪ Artificially acquired from immune serum or gamma
globulin (donated antibodies)
– Antivenom, antitoxin
– Immunological memory does not occur
– Protection is short-lived (2–3 weeks)

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Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune
Response (6 of 11)
• Passive immunity
– Monoclonal antibodies
▪ Antibodies prepared for clinical testing for
diagnostic services
▪ Produced from descendants of a single cell line
▪ Exhibit specificity for only one antigen
▪ Examples of uses for monoclonal antibodies
– Cancer treatment
– Diagnosis of pregnancy
– Treatment after exposure to hepatitis and
rabies
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Figure 12.14 Types of humoral
immunity

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Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune
Response (7 of 11)
• Antibodies (immunoglobulins, Igs)
– Constitute gamma globulin part of blood proteins
– Soluble proteins secreted by activated B cells (plasma
cells)
– Formed in response to a huge number of different
antigens

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Figure 12.15 Basic Antibody Structure

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Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune
Response (8 of 11)
• Antibody structure
– Four polypeptide chains linked by disulfide bonds to
form a T- or Y-shaped molecule
– Each polypeptide chain has:
▪ Variable regions (V) form antigen-binding sites,
one on each arm of the T or Y
▪ Constant regions (C) determine the type of
antibody formed (antibody class)

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Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune
Response (9 of 11)
• Antibody classes
– Antibodies of each class have slightly different roles and
differ structurally and functionally
– Five major immunoglobulin classes (M ADGE)
1. IgM—can fix complement
2. IgA—found mainly in secretions, such as mucus or
tears
3. IgD—important in activation of B cell
4. IgG—can cross the placental barrier and fix
complement; most abundant antibody in plasma
5. IgE—involved in allergies

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Table 12.2 Immunoglobulin Classes (1 of 2)

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Table 12.2 Immunoglobulin Classes (2 of 2)

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Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune
Response (10 of 11)
• Antibody function
– Antibodies inactivate antigens in a number of ways
▪ Complement fixation: complement is fixed when it
binds to antibodies attached to cell targets
▪ Opsonization: antibody binding tags antigens for
phagocytosis
▪ Neutralization: antibodies bind to specific sites on
bacterial exotoxins or on viruses that can cause
cell injury

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Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune
Response (11 of 11)
• Antibody function
– Antibodies inactivate antigens in a number of ways
▪ Agglutination: antibody-antigen reaction that
causes clumping of cells
▪ Precipitation: cross-linking reaction in which
antigen-antibody complex settles out of solution

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Figure 12.16 Mechanisms of Antibody
Action

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Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune
Response (1 of 6)
• Main difference between two arms of the adaptive
response
– B cells secrete antibodies
– T cells fight antigens directly

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Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune
Response (2 of 6)
• Like B cells, immunocompetent T cells are activated to
form a clone by binding with a recognized antigen
• Unlike B cells, T cells are unable to bind to free antigens
– Antigens must be presented by a macrophage, and
double recognition must occur
– APC engulfs and presents the processed antigen in
combination with a protein from the APC

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Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune
Response (3 of 6)
• Different classes of effector T cells
– Helper T cells
– Cytotoxic T cells
• T cells must recognize nonself and self through the
process of antigen presentation
– Nonself—the antigen fragment presented by APC
– Self—coupling with a specific glycoprotein on the
APC’s surface at the same time
• Cytokine chemicals also play a role in immune
response

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Figure 12.17 T Cell Activation and Interactions
With Other Cells of the Immune Response

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Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune
Response (4 of 6)
• Cytotoxic (killer) T cells
– Specialize in killing virus-infected, cancer, or foreign
graft cells
– Bind and release toxic chemicals (perforin or
granzyme) from its granules
▪ Perforin enters the foreign cell’s plasma
membrane creating pores
▪ Granzymes (protein-digesting enzymes) enter
and kill the foreign cell
– Cytotoxic T cell detaches and seeks other targets

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Figure 12.18 A Proposed Mechanism by Which
Cytotoxic T Cells Kill Target Cells (1 of 6)

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Figure 12.18 A Proposed Mechanism by Which
Cytotoxic T Cells Kill Target Cells (2 of 6)

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Figure 12.18 A Proposed Mechanism by
Which Cytotoxic T Cells Kill Target Cells (3 of 6)

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Figure 12.18 A Proposed Mechanism by
Which Cytotoxic T Cells Kill Target Cells (4 of 6)

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Figure 12.18 A Proposed Mechanism by Which
Cytotoxic T Cells Kill Target Cells (5 of 6)

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Figure 12.18 A Proposed Mechanism by
Which Cytotoxic T Cells Kill Target Cells (6 of 6)

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Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune
Response (5 of 6)
• Helper T cells
– Recruit other cells to fight invaders
– Interact directly with B cells bound to an antigen,
prodding the B cells into clone production
– Release cytokines, chemicals that act directly to rid
the body of antigens by:
▪ Stimulating cytotoxic T cells and B cells to grow
and divide
▪ Attracting other white blood cells to the area
▪ Enhancing macrophage activity

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Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune
Response (6 of 6)
• Regulatory T cells
– Release chemicals to suppress the activity of T and B
cells
– Stop the immune response to prevent uncontrolled
activity
• Memory cells
– Long-lived
– Help with subsequent invasions
• A summary of cells and molecules follows (Figure 12.19)

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Figure 12.19 A Summary of the Adaptive
Immune Responses

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Table 12.3 Functions of Cells and
Molecules Involved in Immunity (1 of 4)
Cells

Element Function in the immune response

B cell Lymphocyte that resides in the lymph nodes, spleen, or other lymphoid
tissues, where it is induced to replicate by antigen-binding and helper T cell
interactions; its progeny (clone members) form plasma cells and memory
cells.
Plasma cell Antibody-producing “machine”; produces huge numbers of the same
antibody (immunoglobulin); specialized B cell clone descendant.
Helper T cell A T cell that binds with a specific antigen presented by an A PC; it
stimulates the production of other immune cells (cytotoxic T cells and B
cells) to help fight the invader; acts both directly and indirectly by releasing
cytokines.

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Table 12.3 Functions of Cells and
Molecules Involved in Immunity (2 of 4)
Cells

Element Function in the immune response

Cytotoxic T cell Activity enhanced by helper T cells; its specialty is killing virus-invaded
body cells, as well as body cells that have become cancerous; involved in
graft rejection.
Regulatory T cell Slows or stops the activity of B and T cells once the infection (or attack by
foreign cells) has been conquered. Thought to be important in preventing
autoimmune diseases.
Memory cell Descendant of an activated B cell or T cell; generated during both primary
and secondary immune responses; may exist in the body for years
thereafter, enabling it to respond quickly and efficiently to subsequent
infections or meetings with the same antigen.
Antigen-presenting cell Any of several cell types (macrophage, dendritic cell, B cell) that engulfs
(APC) and digests antigens that it encounters and presents parts of them on its
plasma membrane for recognition by T cells bearing receptors for the
same antigen; this function, antigen presentation, is essential for normal
cell-mediated responses. Macrophages and dendritic cells also release
chemicals (cytokines) that activate many other immune cells.

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Table 12.3 Functions of Cells and
Molecules Involved in Immunity (3 of 4)
Molecules
Element Function in the immune response

Antibody Protein produced by a B cell or its plasma-cell offspring and released into body
(immunoglobulin) fluids (blood, lymph, saliva, mucus, etc.), where it attaches to antigens,
causing neutralization, opsonization, precipitation, or agglutination, which
“marks” the antigens for destruction by phagocytes or complement.
Cytokines Chemicals released by sensitized T cells, macrophages, and certain other
cells:
• Migration inhibiting factor (M IF)—”inhibits” macrophage migration and
keeps them in the local area.
• Interleukin 2—stimulates T cells and B cells to proliferate; activates N K
cells.
• Helper factors—enhance antibody formation by plasma cells.
• Suppressor factors—suppress antibody formation or T cell–mediated
immune responses (interleukin-10 transforming growth factor and others).
• Chemotactic factors—attract leukocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and
basophils) into inflamed area.
• Gamma interferon—secreted by lymphocytes; helps make tissue cells
resistant to viral infection; activates macrophages and N K cells; enhances
maturation of cytotoxic T cells.

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Table 12.3 Functions of Cells and
Molecules Involved in Immunity (4 of 4)
Molecules

Element Function in the immune response

Tumor necrosis factor (T NF) Like perforin, causes cell killing; attracts granulocytes; activates T
cells and macrophages.
Complement Group of bloodborne proteins activated after binding to antibody-
covered antigens; when activated, complement causes lysis of
the microorganism and enhances inflammatory response.
Antigen Substance capable of provoking an immune response; typically a
large, complex molecule not normally present in the body.
Cytotoxins Perforin, granzymes—cell toxins released by cytotoxic T cells and
NK cells.

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Organ Transplants and Rejection (1 of 2)
• Major types of transplants, or grafts
– Autografts—tissue transplanted from one site to
another on the same person
– Isografts—tissue grafts from a genetically identical
person (identical twin)
– Allografts—tissue taken from a person other than an
identical twin (most common type of graft)
– Xenografts—tissue taken from a different animal
species (never successful)

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Organ Transplants and Rejection (2 of 2)
• Blood group and tissue matching is done to ensure the
best match possible
– 75% match is needed to attempt a graft
• Organ transplant is followed by immunosuppressive
therapy to prevent rejection

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Disorders of Immunity (1 of 8)
• The most important disorders of the immune system
– Allergies
– Autoimmune diseases
– Immunodeficiencies

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Disorders of Immunity (2 of 8)
• Allergies
– Allergies, or hypersensitives, are abnormal, vigorous
immune responses
– The immune system overreacts to an otherwise
harmless antigen, and tissue damage occurs

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Disorders of Immunity (3 of 8)
• Types of allergies
– Immediate (acute) hypersensitivity
▪ Seen in hives and anaphylaxis
▪ Due to IgE antibodies and histamine
▪ Anaphylactic shock is systemic, acute and rare
– Delayed hypersensitivity
▪ Reflects activity of T cells, macrophages, and cytokines
▪ Symptoms usually appear 1–3 days after contact with
antigen
▪ Allergic contact dermatitis (poison ivy, cosmetics)

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Homeostatic Imbalance 12.4 Mechanism of an
Immediate (Acute) Hypersensitivity Response (1 of 7)

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Homeostatic Imbalance 12.4 Mechanism of an
Immediate (Acute) Hypersensitivity Response (2 of 7)

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Homeostatic Imbalance 12.4 Mechanism of an
Immediate (Acute) Hypersensitivity Response (3 of 7)

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Homeostatic Imbalance 12.4 Mechanism of an
Immediate (Acute) Hypersensitivity Response (4 of 7)

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Homeostatic Imbalance 12.4 Mechanism of an
Immediate (Acute) Hypersensitivity Response (5 of 7)

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Homeostatic Imbalance 12.4 Mechanism of an
Immediate (Acute) Hypersensitivity Response (6 of 7)

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Homeostatic Imbalance 12.4 Mechanism of an
Immediate (Acute) Hypersensitivity Response (7 of 7)

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Disorders of Immunity (4 of 8)
• Autoimmune diseases
– Self-tolerance breaks down
– Auto-antibodies and sensitized T lymphocytes attack
the body’s own tissues

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Disorders of Immunity (5 of 8)
• Examples of autoimmune diseases
– Rheumatoid arthritis (RA)—destroys joints
– Myasthenia gravis—impairs communication between
nerves and skeletal muscles
– Multiple sclerosis (MS)—white matter of brain and
spinal cord is destroyed
– Graves’ disease—thyroid gland produces excess
thyroxine

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Disorders of Immunity (6 of 8)
• Examples of autoimmune diseases
– Type I diabetes mellitus—destroys pancreatic beta
cells, resulting in deficient insulin production
– Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)—affects kidney,
heart, lung, and skin
– Glomerulonephritis—severe impairment of kidney
function due to acute inflammation

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Disorders of Immunity (7 of 8)
• Autoimmune diseases
– How does self-tolerance break down?
▪ New self-antigens appear
▪ Foreign antigens resemble self-antigens

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Disorders of Immunity (8 of 8)
• Immunodeficiencies
– Congenital or acquired
▪ Severe combined immunodeficiency disease (S
CID) is a congenital disease
▪ AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)
is caused by a virus that attacks and cripples
the helper T cells
– Result from abnormalities in any immune element
– Production or function of immune cells or
complement is abnormal

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Part 3
III: Developmental Aspects of the
Lymphatic System and Body Defenses (1 of 2)
• Lymphatic vessels form by budding off from veins
• Lymph nodes present by fifth week of development
• The thymus and the spleen are the first lymphoid organs
to appear in the embryo
• Other lymphoid organs are poorly developed before birth
• The immune response develops around the time of birth

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Part 3
III: Developmental Aspects of the
Lymphatic System and Body Defenses (2 of 2)
• The ability of immunocompetent cells to recognize
foreign antigens is genetically determined
• Stress appears to interfere with normal immune
response
• Efficiency of immune response wanes in old age, and
infections, cancer, immunodeficiencies, and
autoimmune diseases become more prevalent

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