Solid State Principles/

Semiconductor
Fundamentals
What is Solid State?

• Solid state electronics

means semiconductor
electronics: electronic
equipment using
semiconductor devices.
Semiconductors are the
basic components.
 Solid
State/Semiconductor
• Semiconductors are the basic
components of electronic equipment.
The more commonly used
semiconductors are the diode (used to
rectify), the transistor (used to
amplify), and the integrated circuit
(used to switch or amplify). The
primary function of semiconductor
devices is to control voltage or current
for some desired result.
 • Small size and weight
• Low power consumption at low
Advantages of voltages
semiconducto • High efficiency
rs include the • Great reliability
following: • Ability to operate in hazardous
environments
• Instant operation when power is
applied
• Economic mass production
 • Great
susceptibility to
changes in temperature

• Extra components required

Disadvantages of for stabilization
semiconductors
include: • Easily damaged (by
exceeding power limits, by
reversing polarity of operating
voltage, by excess heat when
soldering into circuit)
 What is
Semiconductor?
• Semiconductor materials have
characteristics that fall
between those of insulators
and conductors. Three pure
semiconductor elements are
carbon (C), germanium (Ge),
and silicon (Si). Those suitable
for electronic applications are
germanium and silicon.
Periodic Table
Germanium
• Germanium is a brittle, grayish-
white element discovered in
1886. A powder, germanium
dioxide, is recovered from the
ashes of certain types of coal.
The powder is then reduced to
the solid form of pure
germanium.
Silicon
Silicon was discovered in 1823. It is found
extensively in the earth’s crust as a white or
sometimes colorless compound, silicon
dioxide.

Silicon dioxide (silica) can be found

abundantly in sand, quartz, agate, and flint.
It is then chemically reduced to pure silicon
in a solid form. Silicon is the most commonly
used semiconductor material.
 Intrinsic material

• Once the pure or intrinsic

material is available, it must
be modified to produce the
qualities necessary for
semiconductor devices.
• The center of the atom is the
nucleus, which contains protons
and neutrons. The protons have
a positive charge, and the
neutrons have no charge.
Electrons orbit around the
nucleus and have a negative
charge. Figure shows the
structure of the silicon atom.
• Figure shows the structure of the
silicon atom. The first orbit contains
two electrons, the second orbit
contains eight electrons, and the
outer orbit, or valence shell,
contains four electrons. Valence is
an indication of the atom’s ability to
gain or lose electrons and
determines the electrical and
chemical properties of the atom.
Figure shows a
simplified drawing of the
silicon atom, with only
the four electrons in the
valence shell.
• Materials that need
electrons to complete
their valence shell are
not stable and are
referred to as active
materials. To gain
stability, an active
material must acquire
electrons in its
valence shell
• Silicon atoms are able
to share their valence
electrons with other
silicon atoms in a
process called covalent
bonding Covalent
bonding is the process
of sharing valence
electrons, resulting in
the formation of crystals
Covalent
Bonding
• Each atom in such a
crystalline structure has
four of its own electrons
and four shared electrons
from four other atoms—a
total of eight valence
electrons. This covalent
bond cannot support
electrical activity because
of its stability.
At room temperature, pure silicon
crystals are poor conductors. They
behave like insulators. If heat energy
is applied to the crystals, however,
some of the electrons absorb the
energy and move to a higher orbit,
breaking the covalent bond. This
allows the crystals to support current
flow.
• Silicon, like other
semiconductor materials, is
said to have a negative
temperature coefficient
because as the temperature
increases, its resistance
decreases. The resistance is
cut in half for every 6 degrees
celsius of rise in temperature.
• Like silicon, germanium has four electrons in its

valence shell and can form a crystalline structure.

Germanium’s resistance is cut in half for every 10

degrees Celsius of temperature rise. Thus

germanium appears to be more stable with

respect to temperature change than silicon.

However, germanium requires less heat energy to

dislodge its electrons than does silicon. Silicon

has a thousand times more resistance than

germanium at room temperature.

 Heat
Heat is a potential source of trouble for
semiconductors that is not easy to
control. Good circuit design minimizes
heat changes. Its resistance is what
makes silicon preferable to germanium
in most circuits. In some applications,
heat-sensitive devices are necessary. In
these applications the germanium
temperature coefficient can be an
advantage; therefore, germanium is
used.
• All early transistors were
made of germanium. The
first silicon transistor was
not made until 1954.
Today, silicon is used for
most solid state
applications.
Quiz 2
• 1. It is a material have characteristics that fall between those of
insulator and conductor.
• 2. What semiconductor component used to rectify?
• 3. What semiconductor component used to amplify?
• 4. True or False: The primary function of semiconductor devices
is to control voltage or current for some desired result.
• 5-6. Give at least 2 advantages of semiconductor.
• 7. Give at least 1 disadvantage of semiconductor.
Quiz 2
• 8. It is a brittle, grayish-white element discovered in 1886.
• 9. It is found extensively in the earth’s crust as a white or
sometimes colorless compound.
• 10. What do you called a pure material?
• 11. What is the center of atom?
• 12. What do you called the negative charge?
• 13. How many valence electrons does a silicon atom have?
• 14. It is an indication of the atom’s ability to gain or lose
electrons.
Quiz 2
• 15. It is the process of sharing valence electrons, resulting in the
formation of crystals.
• 16. True or False: At room temperature, pure silicon crystals are
poor conductors.
• 17. A _____ meaning as the temperature increases, its
resistance decreases.
• 18. It is a potential source of trouble for semiconductors that is
not easy to control.
• 19. What element is used for most solid-state applications
today?
• 20. Three pure semiconductor elements are germanium (Ge),
and silicon (Si) and ______.