NERVOUS

SYSTEM
Coordination of various activities
of our body

🠶Nervous system
🠶Endocrine
system
 Nervous
System
Major Controlling,
system of our body
Regulatory and communication

The nervous system is the part of an animal's body

that coordinates its behavior and transmits
signals between different body areas.

In vertebrates it consists of two main parts, called the

central nervous system (CNS) and the
peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS contains
the brain and spinal cord.
 Three general overlapping
functions
🠶Sensory

🠶Integrativ
e

🠶Motor
NEURO
N
 NEURO
N
🠶 A neuron ( also known as a neuron or nerve cell) is an electrically excitable
cell that
processes and transmits information by electrical and chemical signaling.

🠶 Neurons are the core components of the nervous system, which includes the
brain, spinal cord, andperipheral ganglia.

🠶 Human brain comprises tens of billions of neurons, each linked to

thousands of other neurons via the chemical channels called synapse.
 NEURO
N
🠶 There are many, many different types of neurons but almost all have certain structural and
functional characteristics in common.

🠶 • A neuron consists of three main parts the cell body or perikaryon or soma, dendrites
and axons.

🠶 • The cell body is the central region which is the most important part of the neuron
containing the nucleus of the cell.

🠶 • The soma is, the site of major metabolic activity in the neuron.
 NEURO
N
🠶The protoplasm of cell body contains peculiar angular granules,
known as Nissl’s granules.
🠶• These granules disappear (chromatolysis) during fatigue or
after prolonged stimulation of the nerve fibers connected with
the cells.
🠶They are supposed to represent a store of nervous energy, and in
various mental diseases are deficient or absent.
🠶• Thought to be involved in the synthesis of neurotransmitters
such as acetylcholine.
 NEURO
🠶 N extensions that carry impulses toward the cell
Dendrites are body and
are referred to as being afferent fibers.

🠶 • They effectively increase the surface area of a neuron to

increase its ability to communicate with other neurons.
 NEURO
N
• An axon is one of two types of protoplasmic protrusions that
extrude from the cell body of a neuron .

•Unlike dendrites axons are long, slender projection of a nerve

cell, or neuron, that conducts electrical impulses away from the
neurons cell body or soma.

•Axons are distinguished from dendrites by several features,

including shape, length , and function.

•The point where the axon arises from a cell body is termed as
axon hillock.• Axoplasm is the cytoplasm within the axon of a
neuron.
 NEURO
N
🠶 The axolemma is the cell membrane surrounding an axon.

🠶 It is responsible for maintaining the membrane potential of

the neuron, and it contains ion channels through which ions
can flow.

🠶 In vertebrates, the axons of many neurons are

sheathed in myelin, which is formed by either of two types
of glial cells: Schwann cells ensheathing peripheral
neurons and oligodendrocytes insulating those of the
central nervous system
NEURO
N
🠶 The myelin sheath functions to:– Protects the axon and electrically
isolates it
– Increases the rate of Action Potential transmission (saltation)

🠶 Along myelinated nerve fibers, gaps in the sheath known as nodes of

Ranvier occur at evenly-spaced intervals.
 NEURO
N

🠶 Terminally the Axon branch sparsely, forming collaterals.

🠶 Each collateral may split into telodendria which
end in a synaptic knob, which contains synaptic
vesicles – membranous bags of NTs.
🠶 Axons make contact with other cells via the synaptic
knob—usually on dendrites of other neurons but
sometimes muscle or gland cells—at junctions called
synapses.
🠶 The region between the two connecting neurons is
known as the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft or neural
junction.
Classification of neurons Structural classification

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON POLARITY

 Unipolar : type of neuron in which only one protoplasmic process (neurite) extends
from the cell body.– Found mostly in invertebrate– In humans mostly found in
dorsal root ganglia

 Pseudo unipolar : contains an axon that has split into two branches; one branch
runs to the periphery and the other to the spinal cord.

 Bipolar: An axon and a single dendrite on opposite ends of the soma– are
specialized sensory neurons for the transmission of special senses, hence
abundant in sensory pathways for smell, sight, taste, hearing and vestibular
functions

 Multipolar: An Axon along with more than two dendrites– Multipolar neurons
constitute the majority of neurons in the brain– Subdivided in to golgi I and golgi II
types– Includes motor neurons and interneurons.
 Classification of neurons
FUNCTIONAL
CLASSIFICATION
🠶 BASED ON CONDUCTION DIRECTION
🠶 Afferent neurons –– Also called sensory neurons.– Convey
information from tissues and organs into the central nervous
system

🠶 Efferent neurons –– Also called as motor neurons.– Carry nerve

impulses away from the central nervous system to effectors such
as muscles or glands.

🠶 According to their targets, motor neurons are classified into

three broad categories: Somatic motor neurons, Special visceral
motor neurons ,General visceral motor neurons
 Classification of neurons
FUNCTIONAL
CLASSIFICATION

🠶Interneuron-– also called as

relay neuron or local circuit
neuron.– connects afferent s
neurons and efferent neuron
in neural pathways.
 Classification of neurons
BASED ON
NEUROTRANSMITTER
🠶
PRODUCTION
Cholinergic neurons —secreting acetylcholine
🠶 GABAergic neurons — secreting gamma
aminobutyric acid.
🠶 Glutamatergic neuron — secreting glutamate
🠶 Dopaminergic neurons — secreting dopamine Loss of
dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra has been linked
to Parkinson's disease
🠶 Serotonergic neurons — secreting serotonin. A lack of
serotonin at postsynaptic neurons has been linked to
depression.
Structure of
Neuron
 Nerve fibre Vs Neuron

A nerve fibre, also called an axon, is a long and slender projection of

nerve cells (or neurons) that carry electrical impulses away from the
nerve cell body. A neuron typically has one nerve fibre emanating from
its cell body that transmits impulses to other neurons, muscles or
glands.

Neuron
It is an individual cell which is the functional unit of the nervous system
It has three major parts soma, dendrites and an axon
It is present in both the central and peripheral nervous system
There are three types of neurons motor neurons, sensory neurons and
interneurons
It is composed of the axon, cell body, and dendrites
NERVE
IMPULS
E
Generation,
conduction
and
transmission
 Neuronal
communication
Neurons are the information/signal relay system of
our nervous system
Once stimulated neurons need
to conduct information in two ways:

🠶 1. From one end of a neuron to the other end.

🠶 2. Across the minute space separating one neuron
from another neuron/muscle end plate (synaptic
cleft).

🠶 The 1st is accomplished electrically via Action

Potential generation.
🠶 The 2nd is accomplished chemically
neurotransmitters via
 Definition
🠶Nerve Impulse is defined as a wave of electrical chemical changes
across the neuron that helps in the generation of the action potential in
response to the stimulus. This transmission of a nerve impulse across
the neuron membrane as a result of a change in membrane potential is
known as Nerve impulse conduction.

🠶It is a change in the resting state of the neuron. Due to nerve impulse,
the resting potential is changed to an action potential to conduct signals
to the target in response to a stimulus. The stimulus can be a chemical,
electrical, or mechanical signal.
🠶The action potential is a result of the movement of ions in and out
of the cell. Particularly the ions included in this process are sodium
and potassium ions. These ions are propagated inside and outside
the cell through specific sodium and potassium pumps present in
the neuron membrane.
🠶The transmission of a nerve impulse from one neuron to another
neuron is achieved by a synaptic connection (synapse) between
them. It is thus a mode of communication between different cells.
🠶The rate of transmission and generation of nerve impulses depends
upon the type of cell. Besides, Myelin Sheath also helps in
accelerating the rate of signal conduction (about 20 times).
Generally, the speed of nerve impulse is 0.1-100 m/s.
Mechanism of Nerve Impulse Conduction

🠶Nerve impulse conduction is a major process

occurring in the body responsible for organized
functions of the body. So, for conduction of
nerve impulse there are two mechanisms:
1.Continuous conduction
2.Saltatory conduction
 Continuous conduction

🠶Continuous nerve impulse conduction occurs in non-myelinated

axons. The action potential travels along the entire length of
the axon. Hence, more time is taken in generating and then
transmitting nerve impulses during an action potential.

🠶Continuous conduction requires more energy to transmit

impulses and is a slower process (approximately 0.1 m/s). It
delays the process of conducting signals because it uses a
higher number of ion channels to alter the resting state of the
neuron.
🠶 If you consider the axon as an electrical wire or loop, nerve impulse that travels along
the axon as current, and the charged particles ( sodium and potassium ions) as the
electron particles then the process can be understood quite easily. As the flow of
current in a wire occurs at a specific voltage only, similarly the conduction of nerve
impulse occurs when a stimulus has a maximum threshold value of -55 millivolts. This
is essential for altering the resting membrane state to action membrane potential.

🠶 When the voltage has the required number of electron particles it conducts current.
Similarly, in the case of nerve impulse conduction, the neurons the stimulus must
have a threshold value for causing the movement of ions across the length of axon
(for conducting nerve impulse) by opening the voltage-gated ion channels.
 Saltatory Conduction

🠶 Saltatory is faster than continuous conduction and occurs in myelinated neurons. In myelinated
neurons, myelinated sheaths are present. Between these myelinated sheaths, unmyelinated gaps are
presently known as the nodes of Ranvier.
🠶 Nerve impulse propagates by jumping from one node of Ranvier to the next. This makes the process
of nerve impulse faster as the nerve impulse does not travel the entire length of the axon ( this
happens in case of continuous conduction). The nerve impulse travels at a speed of 100 m/s in
saltatory conduction.
Process of transmission of Nerve Impulse

1.Polarization
2.Depolarization
3.Repolarization
4.Refractory Period
5.Synapse
 Resting Membrane Potential

🠶The resting membrane potential refers to the non-excited

state of the nerve cell at rest when no nerve impulse is
being conducted. The resting membrane potential of the
nerve cell is -70 mV.
🠶It is a static state and both the sodium and potassium
channels are closed during this state maintaining a high
concentration of sodium ions outside and high potassium
ions concentration inside the cell.
 Action Potential

🠶An action potential occurs when the nerve cell is in an excited

state while conducting nerve impulses. In this situation, sodium
channels open and potassium channels are closed.

🠶 This results in a huge influx of sodium ions inside the cells which
trigger the nerve impulse conduction. The action potential is +40
mV.
 Polarization

🠶Polarization is the situation in which the membrane is electrically

charged but non-conductive. It means it doesn’t conduct nerve
impulses in this state.

🠶During polarization, the membrane is in a resting potential state.

The concentration of sodium ions is about 16 times more outside
the axon than inside. In contrast, the concentration of potassium
ions is 25 times more inside the axon than outside.
 Polarization state

🠶The polarization state is also known as the “Unstimulated or non-

conductive state”. Due to the difference in the concentration of ions
inside and outside the membrane, a potential gradient is established
ranging between -20-200mV ( in the case of humans, the potential
gradient in the polarized state is nearly -70mV). In the polarized state,
the axon membrane is more permeable to potassium ions instead of
sodium ions and as a result, it causes rapid diffusion of potassium
ions.
 Depolarization
🠶 It refers to a graded potential state because a threshold stimulus of about -
55mV causes a change in the membrane potential. The threshold stimulus
must be strong enough to change the resting membrane potential into
action membrane potential.
🠶 This results in the alternation in the electro-negativity of the membrane
because the stimulus causes the influx of sodium ions (electropositive ions)
by 10 times more than in the resting state. For this, sodium voltage-gated
channels open. The action potential state is based on the “All or none”
method and has two possibilities:
🠶 If the stimulus is not more than the threshold value, then there will be no
action potential state across the length of the axon.
🠶 If the stimulus is more than the threshold value, then it will generate a
nerve impulse that will travel across the entire length of the axon.
 Repolarization
🠶 It is a condition during which the electrical balance is restored inside and outside
the axon membrane. Due to the high concentration of sodium ions inside the
axoplasm, the potassium channels will open. During the repolarization state,
efflux of potassium ions through the potassium channel occurs. As a result of the
opening of potassium voltage-gated channels, sodium voltage-gated channels
will be closed. Thus, no sodium ions will move inside the membrane. Therefore,
repolarization helps in maintaining or restoring the original membrane potential
state.
🠶 Until potassium channels close, the number of potassium ions that have moved
across the membrane is enough to restore the initial polarized potential state. As
a result of this, the membrane becomes hyperpolarized and have a potential
difference of -90 mV.
 Refractory Period
🠶 The refractory phase is a brief period after the successful transmission of a nerve
impulse. During this period, the membrane prepares itself for the conduction of
the second stimulus after restoring the original resting state. It persists for only 2
milliseconds.
🠶 During this, the sodium ATPase pump allows the re-establishment of the original
distribution of sodium and potassium ions. The sodium and potassium ATPase
pump, driven by using ATP, helps to restore the resting membrane state for the
conduction of a second nerve impulse in response to the other stimulus.
🠶 It causes the movement of ions both against the concentration gradient. For every
two potassium ions that move inside the cell, three sodium ions are transported
outside. This process requires ATP because the movement of ions is against the
concentration gradient of both ions.
 Synapses

🠶 The process of transmission of a nerve impulse from one neuron to the other, after
reaching the axon’s synaptic terminal, is known as synapses. This transmission of the
nerve impulse by synapses involves the interaction between the axon ending of one
neuron (Presynaptic neuron) to the dendrite of another neuron (Postsynaptic
neuron). There is space between the pre-synaptic neuron and post-synaptic neuron
which is known as synaptic cleft or synaptic gap.

🠶 After transmitting from one neuron to another, the nerve impulse generates a
particular response after reaching the target site. If somehow the synaptic gap
doesn’t allow the passage of nerve impulse, the transmission of nerve impulse will
not occur and consequently required response too.
Types of synapses

🠶There are two types of synapses:

1.Electrical synapses
2.Chemical synapses
 Electrical synapses

🠶In electrical synapses, two neurons are connected

through channel proteins for transmitting a nerve
impulse. The nerve impulse travels across the membrane
of the axon in the form of an electrical signal. The signal
is transmitted in the form of ions and therefore it is much
faster than chemical synapses.
🠶In electrical synapses, the synaptic gap is about 0.2nm
which also favors faster nerve impulse conduction.
 Chemical synapses

🠶 In chemical synapses, the conduction of

nerve impulse occurs through chemical
signals.
🠶 These chemical signals are
neurotransmitters. In this type of nerve
impulse conduction, the synaptic gap is more
than electrical synapses and is about 10-20
nm.
🠶 Due to this, the transmission of nerve
impulses is slower than electrical synapses.
Thank
You
Ms. Shibitha
Emmanual