PRINCIPLES OF

COUNTING
TECHNIQUES

Submitted by,
Sangeetha.S
3rd sem Msc chemistry
 GM COUNTER ( GEIGER MULLER
COUNTER)
It is a device,which is perhaps world’s best known radiation detection
instrument,is used to measure ionizing radiations such as alpha&beta
particles,gamma rays etc using the principle of ionization effect,which
is produced inside GM tube
•
PRINCIPLE
• The particle coming out of a radioactive substance
enters the gas tube ( GM tube) , ionises the gas,
resulting electrons Causes acurrent flow. This current
flow can be traced out using an external electrical
circuit and the nuclear particle can be detected
CONSTRUCTION
Geiger Counter consists of a GM tube(the sensing
element which detects the radiation)made of
Cu/Ni/Brass etc and the processing electronic
circuit,which displays the result
The GM tube is filled with an inert gas such as
He/Ne/90%Ar+10%methane at low pressure,to which a
high voltage is applied.Also,it acts as The cathode.A fine
Tungsten wire is along the axis of the tube,which acts as
anode with a potential of 1500V.A glass/micawindow is
present for the entry of radiations.A DC potential is
applied between anode and cathode.
• The tube briefly conducts electrical charge when a
particle(alpha/beta)/photon of incident radiation
makes the gas inside the tube conductive,by ionization.
The ionization and the subsequent flow of electrons are considerably
amplified using an amplifier connected with the tube to produce an
easily measureable detection pulse as a function of applied voltage
• The large pulse from the tube makes the GM counter relatively cheap
to manufacture,as the subsequent electronics is highly
simpliified.Also,the electronics generates a high voltage,that has to
be applied to the GM counter to enable its operation.At low
voltages,it is analogous to that of an ordinary ionization chamber.
WORKING
Some of the randomly moving particles,which are
outside the detector(GM) tube enters into it.Particles
enter Through the window at the end of the tube.
• When particles crashes with gas molecules inside
the tube,ionization occurs and some of the gas
molecules are turned into positive ions and
electrons.
• The electrons get attracted to central wirewhich
electrode,running down through inside of the
tube,which is maintained at a high positive voltage
and gives them energy to produce further ionization
• .The positive ions that are left behind forms an
ionizing region ,and migrate very slowly towards the
outer wall(cathode),and thus a sheath of positive
ions are formed around anode
 Many electrons travel down the wire,making a burst of current in a
circuit connected to it.
• The electrons make a meter needle deflect and thus,pulses that are
produced by particles can be detected.If a loudspeaker is
connected,a loud click can be heard as output.Also,after an interval of
about 200picoseconds,the process is repeated.This time interval is
called Dead Time,where no ionization/pulse formation occurs.
TOWNSEND AVALANCHE
It is a gas ionization process where free electrons are accelerated by an electric
field reaches anode and they collide with further molecules and ionizes
them,consequently producing free additional(means secondary)electrons.
Those electrons in turn accelerate,and cause further ionization and so
on,which finally results in a multiplicative ion collection
The result is an avalanche multiplication,that permits electrical conduction.It
spreads entirely over the length of anode.
This avalanche effect creates pulses and these pulses can be amplified and the
signals are given to the counter.
• The discharge requires a source of free electrons and a significant eletric
field.Without both,the phenomena doesn’t occur.
GM COUNTER – PLEATEU CURVE

• The pulse count rate changes with increase in

applied voltage.The graph represents the
relationship between those.
• When the volage<1000V,there’s no discharge and
ionization,so there’s no current.
• When the voltage is between 1000-1200V,pulses
begin to produce and they are proportional to the
voltage.applied.
When the voltage is between 1200V and 1500V,the count rate
remains constant over a certain range of voltage.This region is called
Pleateu Region/Geiger Region.At here,the pulse count rate will be
independent of applied voltage.The starting point of GM region is
called Geiger Threshold.
• When the voltage is increased above this region,a continuous
discharge will take place due to secondary electrons(Secondary
electrons are those who are produced by further ionization as said
earlier.They often cause unwanted avalanches
APPLICATIONS
To detect radioactive minerals and rocks in course of mineral
prospecting or as a mineral collector.
To detect radioactivity in a tissue or organ in situ
To estimate/detect radioisotope in metabolites.
To check for radiation in areas where depleted Uranium ammunation
shells have been used.
• To check for irradiated gemstones in the jewellery trade.
PROPOTIONAL COUNTER
• It is a device used to count the particles of ionizing radiation and to
measure their energy,with an apparatus that is analogous to that of
GM Counter.It operates at sufficiently moderate voltage(in between
voltage required by GM counter and Ionization Chamber),but at
reduced voltages,this can be used to measure beta
radiations.Here,each electron from an ion pair produces only a single
avalanche at only one point,so that an output current is
produced,which is proportional to the energy deposited by the
radiation.
PRINCIPLE
• Principle:-Proportional Counters uses the principle that nuclear
radiations while passing through a medium,ionizes the medium and
output pulses are generated.Size of output pulses is proportional to
the no of primary electrons produced by ionization,and the no.of
primary electrons are proportional to the energy of ionization
CONSTRUCTION
Usually this instrument ivolve multiplicative
ion collection process.Most commonly used
proportional counters are of cylindrical in
shape.In some cases,the cylinder may be
made up of glass,the inner walls of which are
coated with a conducting metal like Cu or
Ag.Also,particles enter through a window
made up of thin mica.
A thin metallic wire is present along the
metallic cylinder and it acts as anode whereas
the cylindrical body itself acts as
cathode.These two electrodes are separated
by an insulation,present inside the
cylinder.Usually,high potential is applied in
between anode and cathode..
WORKING
• Usually a mixture of gases are added inside the cylinder,like Ne,Ar,Kr
etc which favour high amplification..
• The high voltage(V)applied to the anode is so adjusted that the tube
operates in the proportional region.For a chamber of cylindrical
geometry,the strength of electric field that have been developed at a
distance r from the central metal wire is given by,
When an energetic radioactive charged particle enters the cylindrical
tube,it ionizes the gas molecules by collision and further ionization
process.
The ions thus produced, are accelerated due to high potential difference
between electrodes,and cause further ionization of gas molecules.These
charged particles(ions)get accumulated on the electrodes.
• The charge accumulated on the electrodes gives rise to electric
pulses(electric fields),followed by the amplification of them.Also,the
counter favours the production of high voltage electrical pulses.The
pulse height depends upon the energy of radiation.But,at reduced
voltages,smaller pulses have also been found.
TOWNSEND AVALANCHE
• The electrons,liberated by primary ionizing effect gets sufficient
kinetic energy.These energetic electrons,while moving towards the
anode,collides with neutral gas atoms,causing ionization of the
neutral atoms.The electrons thus produced may cause further
ionization.This multiplication effect is often called Townsend
Avalanche.The total no.of ion pairs produced by a single electron is
called Gas Multiplication Factor(M).In ionization chambers,this factor
is unity and in proportional counters,its value is of the range of 10^2-
10^4
Proportional Conters works in much faster rate,compared to that of Ionization
Chamber.Its main features are:-
i)Because of its built-in amplification,it can conveniently detect low energy
radiation
Ii)Because of its proportionality,one can produce an energy
spectrum of incoming radiations.
Iii)They’re more stable and more reproducible,Also,usefulcounting range is much
greater as there’s practically no dead timeover each pulse.
• Iv)Here,the electron from an ion pair produces an avalanche(or discharge)at one
point only and it doesn’t spread entirely along the whole length of central
wire(anode) like in GM Counters.
USES AND DISADVANTAGES
i)Detecting charged particles and low energy X-rays and recording their
energy spectrum.(as well as of particle detections with high and low
potentials)
Alpha particles that are produced in slow neutron involving reactions
are detected by proportional counters.
• 🞄 Its main disadvantage is,as the gas multiplication factor depends on
applied voltage,the applied voltage should be maintained within
narrow limits
THANK
YOU