CHAPTER ONE

computer Organization & Architecture

Outlines
Overview of computer Organization & Architecture
What is Logic Expressions and Boolean Expression
Gates and Circuits
Combinational and sequential Circuits
Adder and Flip-Flops
 OVERVIEW
Computer Organization & Architecture is the study of
internal working, structuring and implementation of a computer
system.

Computer Architecture is a functional description of

requirements and design implementation for the various parts of
computer.

It deals with functional behavior of computer system.

Architecture of computer system can be considered as a catalog

of tools available for any operator using the system.
CONT…
Computer Organization: Computer Organization comes after the decide of

Computer Architecture first.

It is how operational attribute are linked together and contribute to realise the

architectural specification.

Computer Organization deals with structural relationship and will be the way the

system is structured.
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE AND COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
Computer Architecture Computer Organization

Architecture describes what the Organization describes how it does it.

computer does.
Computer Organization deals with structural
Computer Architecture deals with relationship.
functional behavior of computer system.
 It deals with low-level design issue.
 It deals with high-level design issue.
Where, Organization indicates its performance.
Architecture indicates its hardware.
Computer Organization handles the segments
For designing a computer, its of the network in a system.
architecture is fixed first.
BOOLEAN AND BOOLEAN VALUE
What is Boolean?

 Boolean refers to a data type in computer programming and computer science that
represents truth values.

 It is named after mathematician and logician George Boole, who developed Boolean
algebra, a branch of algebraic logic.

In programming languages, Boolean is typically represented by two possible values: "true"
and "false."

These values are used to represent the logical states of "yes" or "no," "on" or "off," or any
other binary condition.
CONT…
Boolean values are often the result of logical expressions or comparisons.

For example, in many programming languages, the result of a comparison operation like
"greater than" or "equality" is a Boolean value.

 For instance, the expression Boolean logic "5 > 3" would evaluate to "true" because the
statement "5 is greater than 3" is true.

So , In computing, the term Boolean means a result that can only have one of two possible
values: true or false.

When you are supplying a Boolean value, you can type either YES, ON, or TRUE for a
true value, and NO, OFF, or FALSE for a false value.
 BOOLEAN
EXPRESSION:
A Boolean expression is composed of a combination of the Boolean constants (True or False), Boolean
variables, parentheses and logical connectives or logical operators like AND, OR, NOT, etc. That results in
a Boolean value (true or false).

These operators allow for combining or negating Boolean values to create more complex logical
expressions.

For example, the expression "A and B" evaluates to "true" only if both A and B are true. Each Boolean
expression represents a Boolean function.

 Boolean expressions can compare data of any type as long as both parts of the expression have and
results in a Boolean value, that is, in a value of either true or false.

Boolean expressions are commonly used in programming, logical reasoning, and decision-making
processes.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Boolean algebra is a mathematical system that deals with the manipulation and analysis of
Boolean variables and their logical operations.

It provides a formal framework for working with Boolean expressions and establishing rules and
laws governing their behavior.

Boolean algebra allows the simplification, combination, and manipulation of Boolean expressions
using rules theorems such as De Morgan's laws, distributive laws, and identity laws.

 It provides a systematic approach to analyze and optimize logical circuits, evaluate truth tables,
and reason about logical relationships.

It deals with operations and expressions involving Boolean variables and truth values, which are
typically represented as "true" and "false."
LOGIC GATES AND CIRCUITS.
Gates and circuits are fundamental components of digital logic and computer systems.

They are used to process and manipulate binary information through logical operations.
Here's an overview of gates and circuits:

Logic Gates:

Logic gates are electronic components that operate on binary inputs (0s and 1s) and
produce binary outputs based on predefined logical functions.

 Each logic gate performs a specific logical operation, such as AND, OR, NOT, NAND,
NOR, XOR, etc.
CONT…
Logic Circuits:

Logic circuits are built by interconnecting logic gates to perform complex logical operations.

A logic circuit is a collection of gates that work together to process and manipulate binary data.

 Circuits can be designed to implement specific functions, such as arithmetic operations, memory
storage, data processing, or control flow.

Logic circuits can range from simple circuits with a few gates to complex circuits with thousands or
millions of gates.

 They are the building blocks of digital systems, including microprocessors, memory units, and other
electronic devices.
LOGIC DIAGRAM
A logic diagram is a graphical representation of a logic circuit or system that shows

the interconnection and function of its components, which are typically logic gates.

 It provides a visual depiction of how the logic gates are connected together to

perform a specific logical operation or function.

Logic diagrams use standardized symbols to represent different types of logic gates

and other components.

A TRUTH TABLE
A truth table is a tabular representation that shows the possible combinations of

input values and their corresponding output values for a logical expression or a logic

circuit.

It provides a systematic way to count all possible input combinations and

determine the resulting outputs based on the logical function being analyzed.

It defines the function of a gate by listing all possible input combinations that the

gate could encounter, and the corresponding output.

 BASIC LOGICAL GATES
There are different types of logical gates such as:
AND
OR
NOT
NAND
XOR
NOR
 AND GATES
An AND gate is a fundamental logic gate that performs the logical AND operation on
two or more input signals and produces an output signal.

It is the gate that generates an output signal of 1 only if all input signals are 1.

Two or more switches connected in series behave as an AND gate. It is the physical
realization of logical multiplication.
 OR GATES
An OR gate is a fundamental logic gate that performs the logical OR operation on two
or more input signals and produces an output signal.

It generates an output signal of 1 if any of the input signals is 1.

An OR gate is the physical realization of logical addition. The output of the OR gate
with inputs A and B is 1 if A or B is a 1.

 Two or more switches connected in parallel behave as an OR gate.

 NOT GATES
A NOT gate, also known as an inverter, is a fundamental logic gate that performs the logical negation
operation.

 It takes a single input signal and produces the logical complement or opposite of that input signal.

It is the physical realization of the complementation or logical inversion. A NOT gate is also known
as an inverter because it inverts the input.

 A NOT gate always has a single input.

 NAND GATES
A NAND gate is a fundamental logic gate that performs the logical NAND operation on two or more
input signals.
 "NAND" stands for "NOT AND," indicating that it combines the functions of the logical AND gate
and the logical NOT gate.
It generates an output signal of 1 if any one of the input is a 0 and will be a 0 when all input signals
are 1. NAND gate is a complemented AND gate.
 The symbol  is used to represent NAND operation in Boolean expression. Thus A B = (A.B)=
A+B
The NAND gate can then be seen to be an AND gate followed by a NOT gate.
 NOR GATES
A NOR gate is a fundamental logic gate that performs the logical NOR operation on two or more
input signals.
"NOR" stands for "NOT OR," indicating that it combines the functions of the logical OR gate and the
logical NOT gate.
It generates an output signal of 1 when all input signals are 0 and it will be 0 if any input represents
1. NOR gate is a complemented OR gate.
The NOR gate can then be seen to be an OR gate followed by a NOT gate.
The symbol  is used to represent NOR operation in Boolean expression. Thus, A B = (A+B)=
A.B
XOR GATE
An XOR gate, short for exclusive OR gate, is a logic gate that outputs a true (1) value when the
number of true inputs is odd. It returns a false (0) value when the number of true inputs is even.

An XOR gate implements an exclusive or from mathematical logic; that is, a true output results if
one, and only one, of the inputs to the gate is true. If both inputs are false or both are true, a false
output results
PROPERTIES OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
LAW OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
[1] x+0=x
[2] x•0=0
[3] x+1=1
[4] x•1=x
[5] x+x=x
[6] x•x=x
[7] x + x’ = 1
[8] x • X’ = 0
[9] (x+y’)y=xy
DEMORGAN’S THEOREMS

The complement of two or more AND variables is equivalent to the OR of the

complements of the individual variables.

 (AB)’ = A’ + B’

The complement of two or more OR variables is equivalent to the AND of the

complements of the individual variables.

 (A + B)’ = A’B’
DeMorgan’s Theorems (Cont…)
 SIMPLIFICATION OF BOOLEAN EXPRESSION
Simplification of Boolean functions involves reducing a given Boolean expression to its simplest form by applying

various methods such as Boolean algebra.

The goal is to simplify the expression to improve readability, reduce complexity, and optimize circuit

implementation and it leads to simpler and cheaper implementations.

Here are some common techniques used for simplifying Boolean functions:

Boolean Algebra Laws: Boolean algebra provides a set of laws and rules that can be applied to manipulate and

simplify Boolean expressions.

These laws include commutative, associative, distributive, identity, complement laws. By applying these laws, you

can simplify expressions by rearranging terms, combining like terms, or eliminating unnecessary components.
 CONT…
Truth Tables: Creating a truth table for a Boolean function can help identify patterns and

redundancies in the expression.

By analyzing the truth table, you can identify equivalent terms, remove redundant terms, and

simplify the expression based on the desired outputs.

The simplified equation may be translated back into circuit form for a logic circuit performing

the same function with fewer components.

If equivalent function may be achieved with fewer components, the result will be increased

reliability and decreased cost of manufacture.

EXAMPLE 1
EXAMPLES 2
TYPES OF CIRCUITS

There are many types of circuits

Analog Circuit:

Digital Circuit:

Combinational Circuit:

Sequential Circuit:

Integrated Circuit (IC):

ANALOG CIRCUIT:
An analog circuit is a circuit that processes continuous signals, where the
signal can vary over a range of values such as voltage or current.

They are designed to handle and manipulate analog signals rather than
digital signals and circuits typically do not contain logic gates.

 Common components in analog circuits include resistors, capacitors,

inductors, operational amplifiers, transistors, and other devices.

These circuits are used to amplify, filter filtering out unwanted frequencies ,
and manipulate analog signals, such as audio or radio frequency signals.
DIGITAL CIRCUIT:
A digital circuit processes discrete signals that have only two possible values,
typically represented as 0 and 1.

These circuits are used in digital computers, calculators, and other digital systems
and circuits typically contain logic gates that operate with digital only.

 Digital circuits use logic gates, flip-flops, registers, and other components to
perform operations like arithmetic, logic, and memory storage.

There are two types of digital circuits.

Combinational Circuit and sequential circuit.

COMBINATIONAL CIRCUIT:
A combinational circuit consists of logic gates whose outputs, at any time, are
determined by combining the values of the inputs.

It produces an output based on the current input values, without any internal
memory or feedback.

Combinational circuits are used to implement logic functions and perform

arithmetic operations.

For n input variables, there are 2n possible binary input combinations and for each
binary combination of the input variables, there is one possible output.
 CONT…
Hence, a combinational circuit can be described by:

1. A truth table that lists the output values for each combination of the input variables. or

2. m Boolean functions, one for each output variable.

ADDER
HALF ADDER

A combinational circuit that performs the addition of two bits is called a half adder.

This circuit needs 2 inputs and 2 outputs.

It accepts two binary digits on its inputs and produce two binary digits as sum bit and a carry bit.

The half adder is an example of a simple, functional digital circuit built from two logic gates.

 The half adder adds to one-bit binary numbers A and B. The output is the sum of the two bits (S) and the

carry (C).

That is S=A`.B + A.B`

 C= A.B
Cont…
HALF ADDER LOGIC
DIAGRAM
Half adder truth table
 FULL ADDER
It is One that performs the addition of 3 bits (2 significant bits and previous carry) is
called a full adder.

The full adder accepts two inputs bits and an input carry then, generates a sum
output and an output carry.

Two of the input variables (A and B) represent the addend bits and the third input
variable input represents the carry from the previous lower significant position.

These two outputs are designated by the symbol S (Sum) and C (Carry).
CONT…
Cont…
FULL ADDER(CONT..)
Sum = (A ⊕ B) ⊕ Cin
Carry= A.B + Cin(A ⊕ B)
Full adder truth table
SEQUENTIAL LOGIC OR CIRCUIT
Sequential logic is a type of logic circuit whose output depends not only on
the present value of its input signals but on the sequence of past inputs, the
input history as well.
This is in contrast to combinational logic, whose output is a function of only
the present input.
Sequential circuits consist of combinational logic as well as memory elements
(used to store certain circuit states).
In sequential circuit Outputs depend on BOTH current input values and
previous input values (kept in the storage elements).
COMBINATIONAL VS. SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS
FLIP-FLOPS

Flip-flops are sequential logic circuits used in digital electronics and computer systems. They
are fundamental building blocks for storing and manipulating binary information.

Flip-flops are a type of circuit used as data storage elements to store a single bit (binary digit) of
data ,one of its two states represents a "one" and the other represents a "zero.

The state is when Q=1 and Q'=0, it is in the set state (or 1-state). When Q=0 and Q'=1, it is in
the clear state (or 0-state).

The stored data can be changed by applying varying inputs or signals.

It is used in a number of electronics, including computers and communications equipment.

It can be constructed from two pair of cross-coupled NAND gates or two NOR gates.
TYPES OF FLIP-FLOPS

•Flip-flops can be divided into common types:

 SR (Set-Reset)

D (Data or Delay)

 JK and etc.

T

•The behavior of a particular type can be described by what is termed the

characteristic equation.
 S-R FLIP FLOP
It has two outputs, Q and Q', and two inputs, set and reset. This type of flip-flop is
referred to as an SR flip-flop
The design of these flip flops also includes two inputs, called the SET [S] and RESET
[R].
CONT…
An important point to note here is that for a NOR gate, Logic ‘1’ is a dominating input and if any

one of its input is Logic ‘1’ (HIGH), then the output is Logic ‘0’ (LOW), irrespective of the other

input. With this in mind, let us analyze the above circuit.

Case 1: R = 0 and S = 0

In this case, the inputs of both the NOR gates are Logic ‘0’. As neither of them are dominating

inputs, they have no effect on the output. So, the output retains their previous states i.e., there is no

change in the output.

This condition is called as Hold Condition or No Change Condition.

CONT…
Case 2: R = 0 and S = 1

In this case, the ‘S’ input is 1, which means the output of the NOR Gate Q will become 0. As a result, both the
inputs of NOR Gate ‘R’ become 0 and hence the output of the NOR Gate value of Q is 1 (HIGH).

As ‘1’ at input S makes the output to switch to one of its stable states and sets it to ‘1’, the S input is known as
SET input.

Case 3: R = 1 and S = 0

In this case, the ‘R’ input is 1, which means the output of the NOR Gate Q will become 0 i.e., Q is 0 (LOW).

 As a result, both the inputs of NOR Gate ‘S’ become 0 and hence the output of the NOR Gate Q is 1 (HIGH).
As ‘1’ at input R makes the output to switch to one of its stable states and resets it to ‘0’, the R input is known as
RESET input.
CONT…
Case 4: R = 1 and S = 1
This input condition is forbidden as it forces outputs of both NOR Gates to
become 0, which is a violation of complementary outputs.
Hence, the input condition R = 1 and S = 1 is simply not used or invalid.
 PLIP-PLOP WITH NAND GATE
.
CONT…
An important point about NAND gate is that its dominating input is 0 i.e., if any of
its input is Logic ‘0’, the output is Logic ‘1’, irrespective of the other input.
The output is 0, only if all the inputs are 1. With this in mind, let us see the
working of a NAND based RS Flip-Flop.
Case 1: R = 1 and S = 1
When both the S and R inputs are HIGH, the output remains in previous state i.e., it
holds the previous data.
Case 2: R = 1 and S = 0
When R input is HIGH and S input is LOW, the flip flop will be in SET state. As R
is HIGH, the output of NAND gate Q becomes LOW.
This causes both the inputs of NAND gate ‘S’ to become LOW and hence, the
output of NAND gate A i.e., Q becomes HIGH.
CONT…
Case 3: R = 0 and S = 0

When both the R and S inputs are LOW, the flip flop will be in undefined state.

 Because the low inputs of S and R, violates the rule of flip – flop that the outputs
should complement to each other. So, the flip flop is in undefined state (or forbidden
state).
 D FLIP FLOP
In SR NAND Gate Bistable circuit, the undefined input condition of SET = "0" and RESET =

"0" is forbidden.

It is the drawback of the SR flip flop that both outputs to be 1. This condition violates the fact

that both outputs are complements of each other.

 A flip-flop stores a single bit (binary digit) of data; one of its two states represents a "one" and

the other represents a "zero".

But in order to prevent this from happening an inverter can be connected between the “SET”

and the “RESET” inputs to produce another type of flip flop circuit known D flip flop.
CONT…
D Flip Flop ensures that at the same time, both the inputs, i.e., S and R, are never

equal to 1.

The Delay flip-flop is designed using a SR flip-flop with an inverter connected

between the inputs allowing for a single input D (Data).

This single data input, which is labeled as "D" used in place of the "Set" input and for

the complementary "Reset" input, the inverter is used. So, here S=D and R=

~D(complement of D).
LOGICAL CIRCUIT OF D-FLIP FLOPS
JK FLIP FLOP
The JK flip flop is one of the most used flip flops in digital circuits and having two inputs

'J' and ‘K. The JK flip flop work in the same way as the SR flip flop work.

The only difference between JK flip flop and SR flip flop is that when both inputs of SR

flip flop is set to 1, the circuit produces the invalid states as outputs.

Essentially, this is a modified version of an S-R flip-flop with no “invalid” or “illegal”

output state.

The JK Flip Flop is a gated SR flip-flop having the addition of a clock input circuitry.
CONT…
THE J AND K INPUTS
With SR flip flop the invalid or illegal output condition occurs when both of the inputs are set
to 1 and are prevented by the addition of a clock input circuit with JK.

The old two-input of SR AND gates have been replaced with 3-input AND gates, and the third
input of each gate receives feedback from the Q and not-Q outputs.

It permit the J input to have effect only when the circuit is reset, and permit the K input to have
effect only when the circuit is set.

If the circuit is “set,” the J input is inhibited by the 0 status of not-Q through the lower AND
gate and if the circuit is “reset,” the K input is inhibited by the 0 status of Q through the upper
AND gate.

Since Q and Q' are always different, we can use them to control the input.
CONT…
When both J and K inputs are 1, however, something unique happens. Because of
the selective inhibiting action of those 3-input AND gates.

 A “set” state inhibits input J so that the flip-flop acts as if J=0 while K=1 when in
fact both are 1.

On the next clock pulse, the outputs will switch (“toggle”) from set (Q=1 and not-
Q=0) to reset (Q=0 and not-Q=1).

Conversely, a “reset” state inhibits input K so that the flip-flop acts as if J=1 and
K=0 when in fact both are 1. The next clock pulse toggles the circuit again from
reset to set
TRUTH TABLE
T FLIP-FLOP
In T flip flop, "T" defines the term "Toggle". In SR Flip Flop, we provide only a
single input called "Toggle" or "Trigger" input to avoid an intermediate state
occurrence.

 Now, this flip-flop work as a Toggle switch. The next output state is changed with
the complement of the present state output. This process is known as "Toggling"'.

Toggling means changing the next state output to complement the current state. T
is an abbreviation for Toggle.

A good example to explain this concept is using a light switch.

CONT…
The "T Flip Flop" has only one input, which is constructed by connecting the input of JK
flip flop. This single input is called T.
In simple words, we can construct the "T Flip Flop" by converting a "JK Flip Flop".
Sometimes the "T Flip Flop" is referred to as single input "JK Flip Flop.
The "T Flip Flop" is designed by passing the AND gate's output as input to the NOR gate of
the "SR Flip Flop".
 The inputs of the "AND" gates, the present output state Q, and its complement Q' are sent
back to each AND gate.
 The toggle input is passed to the AND gates as input. These gates are connected to the
Clock (CLK) signal.
 In the "T Flip Flop", a pulse train of narrow triggers are passed as the toggle input, which
changes the flip flop's output state.
DIAGRAM OF THE "T FLIP FLOP
THE DIGITAL BUFFER
A digital buffer is actually a specific type of circuit and is fundamental electronic circuit that serves a particular purpose, which is to amplify or replicate
digital signals.

The main function of a digital buffer is to take an input signal and produce an output signal that is an exact replica of the input signal.

For example, if the input signal to a digital buffer is a logic level 1, the output signal will also be a logic level 1, indicating the same logical value.

The purpose of a digital buffer is to ensure that the logical value of the input signal is faithfully reproduced at the output, without any significant
distortion or alteration.

This replication of the logical value allows for proper signal transmission and reliable operation within the digital system.

A Digital Buffer is another single input device that does no inversion or performs any type of logical operation on its input signal as its
output exactly matches that of its input.
In other words, the digital buffer is a "non-inverting" device as it does nothing as its output state equals its input state.
CONT…
MULTIPLEXERS (MUX)
A multiplexer, also known as a MUX, is a fundamental digital circuit that serves the
purpose of selecting and routing multiple input signals to a single output line based on input
control signals.

 It essentially acts as a data selector, allowing us to choose which input signal is transmitted
to the output at any given time and is also called as Data Selector.

The input lines are designated as A0, A1, A2, and so on, up to An-1, where n represents the
number of input lines. The number of input line vary depends on the specific multiplexer.

Therefore, multiplexer consists of main components: multiple input lines, control inputs,
and a single output line.
CONT…
The control inputs determine which input line is selected and forwarded to the output.

Let's take an example of a 4-to-1 multiplexer, which has four input lines (A, B, C, and D),
two control inputs (S0 and S1), and a single output line (Y).

The control inputs, S0 and S1, can be set to different binary combinations (00, 01, 10, or
11) to select one of the four input lines to be transmitted to the output.

For instance, if S0 and S1 are set to 01, the multiplexer will route the signal from input line
B to the output line Y.

By changing the control inputs, we can select and transmit any of the four input signals to
the output.
CONT…
DE-MULTIPLEXERS (DE MUX)
Conversely, a demultiplexer (or demux) is a device taking a single input signal and
selecting one of many data-output-lines.

A demultiplexer functions exactly in the reverse of a multiplexer, that it accepts only one
input and gives many outputs.

In an ALU circuit, the output of ALU can be stored in multiple registers or storage units
with the help of demultiplexer.

 Each output of demultiplexer is connected to multiple register which can be stored in the
registers.

The input will be connected to one of these outputs based on the values of selection lines.
CONT…
CONT…
COMMUNICATION THROUGH MUX AND DEMUX

Generally multiplexer and demultiplexer are used together since most of the
communication systems are bidirectional.
ENCODERS
An encoder is a device, circuit, software program, algorithm or person that converts
information from one format/code to another, for the purposes of standardization,
speed, confidentiality, security.

In the dominion of digital circuits, encoders are devices that are used to convert a
set of input signals into a coded output.
CONT…
DECODERS
Decoder is a combinational circuit that has 'n' input lines and maximum of 2n output lines.
One of these outputs will be active High based on the combination of inputs present, when
the decoder is enabled.