ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

DR. ÇAĞRI DELİLBAŞI

 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system is the collection of glands that
produce hormones that regulate metabolism, growth
and development, tissue function, sexual function,
reproduction, sleep, and mood, among other things.

Although the hormones circulate throughout the

body, each type of hormone is targeted toward
certain organs and tissues.
 THE GENERAL FUNCTION

➢ The endocrine system gets

some help from organs such as
the kidney, liver, heart and
gonads, which have secondary
endocrine functions.

○ The kidney, for example,

secretes hormones such as
erythropoietin and renin.
 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
ENDOCRINE AND EXOCRINE GLANDS

ENDOCRINE GLAND: a gland that secretes hormones

directly into the bloodstream; a ductless gland. (i.e. tyroid
gland, suprarenal glands)

EXOCRINE GLAND: a gland that secretes substances into

ducts which then leave the body (i.e. sweat/sebaceous glands)
or into an internal space or lumen (i.e. digestive glands).
 WHAT IS A HORMONE?

Hormones are chemical substances that act like

messenger molecules in the body. After being made in
one part of the body, they travel to other parts of the
body where they help control how cells and organs do
their work.
Functions of hormones

● Growth and development of producing cells or tissues

● Food metabolism
● Initiating and maintaining sexual development and
reproduction
● Maintaining body temperature
● Controlling thirst
● Regulating mood and cognitive functioning
Most hormones are regulated by feedback mechanisms.
A feedback mechanism is a loop in which a product
feeds back to control its own production
Negative feedback occurs when a product feeds back to
decrease its own production
Positive feedback occurs when a product feeds back to
increase its own production
 HORMONE TRANSPORT IN BLOOD
Hormones flow through the blood and then bind to their
receptors within the capillaries or diffuse out to reach the
receptors at the target cell.

Water insoluble hormones must bind to plasma protein to be

carried into the plasma, hormones remain bind to these protein
for some time which act as a reservoir for the hormones.

Water soluble hormones which can dissolve into the plasma by

itself and can easily diffuse out to their site of action. Water
soluble hormones act faster in a short period of time.
 THE PITUITARY GLAND

The main endocrine gland. It hangs by a

stalk from the hypothalamus. It produces
hormones that control other glands and
many body functions including growth.
The pituitary glands are made of the
anterior lobe and posterior lobe. The
anterior lobe produces and releases
hormones. The posterior lobe does not
itself produce hormones but it releases the
hormenes produced in the hypotalamus.
 Anterior Pituitary Hormones

● Growth hormone (GH): GH is essential in early years

to maintaining a healthy body composition and for
growth in children. In adults, it aids healthy bone and
muscle mass (increases bone and muscle growth) . It
also affects fat distribution and increases protein
synthesis.
● Prolactin (PRL): Prolactin stimulates breast
milk production after childbirth.
● Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): FSH works with LH to
ensure normal functioning and development of the ovaries and testes.
It stimulates the production of egg and sperm.

● Luteinizing hormone (LH): LH works with FSH to ensure

normal functioning of the ovaries and testes. It triggers ovulation
in females and stimulates testosterone production in male.

● Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): ACTH stimulates the

adrenal glands to produce hormones.

● Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): TSH stimulates the thyroid

gland to produce hormones.
 Posterior Pituitary Hormones

● Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): Antidiuretic hormone, also

known as vasopressin, acts to maintain blood pressure, blood
volume and tissue water content by controlling the amount of
water and hence the concentration of urine excreted by the
kidney. This hormone prompts the kidneys to increase water
absorption in the blood.
● Oxytocin: Oxytocin is involved in a variety of processes, such
as contracting the uterus during childbirth and stimulating
breast milk production.
 THE PINEAL GLAND

The pineal gland's function in the body is not clearly understood yet.
However, it is known to play a role in regulating female reproduction and
sexual maturation. It also has a part in controlling circadian rhythms
(biological processes), the body’s internal clock that affects such actions as
when we wake and sleep. The pinealocytes create and secrete melatonin, a
hormone that helps maintain the body’s internal clock.
 THYROID GLAND
Location :

The thyroid gland is located at the base of the

throat, just inferior to the Adam’s apple.

Structure :

It is a fairly large gland consisting of two lobes

joined by a central mass, or isthmus .

Hormons :

● Thyroid hormone (thyroxine [T4] and

triiodothyronine [T3]) .
● Calcitonin
 THYROID GLAND
Thyroxine (T4): is the major hormone secreted by the thyroid follicles.
Triiodothyronine (T3): is formed at the target tissues by conversion of thyroxine to
triiodothyronine.
Each is constructed from two tyrosine amino acids linked together, but thyroxine has
four bound iodine atoms, whereas triiodothyronine has three .

Function :
● It is the body’s metabolic hormone
● Thyroid hormone controls the rate at which glucose is “burned,” or oxidized, and
converted to body heat and chemical energy.
● necessary for normal growth and development.
Hyperthyroidism
Excessive levels of thyroid hormones in
the blood

Graves' disease : is an immune system disorder where the thyroid gland

enlarges and the eyes may bulge, or protrude anteriorly , high basal
metabolic rate, intolerance of heat, rapid heartbeat, weight loss, nervous
and agitated behavior, and a general inability to relax.
Hyporthyroidism
low levels of thyroid ho r m o nes in t h e
blood

Myxedema
which is characterized by both
physical and mental sluggishness
,Other signs are puffiness of the goiter :It is an enlargement of
face, fatigue, poor muscle tone, the thyroid gland that results
Cretinism : it results in
low body temperature (the when the diet is deficient in
dwarfism in which adult body
person is always cold), obesity, iodine.
proportions remain childlike.
and dry skin. (in adult ).
Calcitonin hormone :

● decreases blood calcium levels by causing calcium to be

deposited in the bones.

● It acts antagonistically to parathyroid hormone,

● It is released directly to the blood in response to increasing

levels of blood calcium.
 PARATHYROID GLANDS
● The parathyroid glands are four small
glands located on the posterior aspect of
the thyroid gland.

● Low blood levels of calcium stimulate the

parathyroid glands to release parathyroid
hormone (PTH). It causes bone calcium to
be liberated into the blood.

● PTH also stimulates the kidneys and

intestine to absorb more calcium
 PARATHYROID GLANDS

● Hyposecretion of PTH results in:

tetany:
If blood calcium levels fall too low, neurons become
extremely irritable and overactive. They deliver
impulses to the muscles so rapidly that the muscles
go into uncontrollable spasms (tetany), which may
be fatal.
● Hypersecretion leads to extreme bone
wasting and fractures.
 HYPOTHALAMUS
The hypothalamus is a secretion of the brain responsible for the production of
many of the body's essential hormones .It's not an endocrine gland but regulates
the secretion of some pituitary gland hormones.

Location:
The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus and above
the pituitary gland and brain stem
Functions of hypothalamus

● The primary function of the hypothalamus is homeostasis

● The hypothalamus govern temperature regulation

● The hypothalamus also governs thirst and hunger

● It also governs sleep, mood, and blood pressure

 GONADS
● The female and male gonads produce sex cells (an exocrine
function).
● They also produce sex hormones that are identical to
those produced by adrenal cortex cells.
● The major differences from the adrenal sex hormone
production are the source and relative amounts of hormones
produced.
 OVARIES

● The female sex organ that serves as an endocrine gland

● The female gonads or ovaries, are paired, almond-sized
organs located in the pelvic cavity.
● Ovaries produce female sex cells ( ova or eggs) and two
groups of steroids hormones estrogens and progesterone.
PRODUCTION

● An ovarian follicle (and ovum) start to mature each month following

puberty under the influence of FSH (Follicle-stimulating hormone ) .The
developing follicle secretes estrogen

● Luteinizing hormone (LH) causes the follicle to rupture and release the
ovum (ovulation); the follicle becomes the corpus luteum. The corpus
luteum secretes progesterone
FUNCTIONS

➢ ESTROGENS

a)The estrogens are responsible for the development of sex characteristics in

women (primarily growth and maturation of the reproductive organs)and the
appearance of secondary sex characteristics (hair in the pubic and axillary
regions)at puberty.

b)Acting with progesterone, estrogens promote breast development and cyclic

changes in the uterine lining (the menstrual cycle).
FUNCTIONS

➢ PROGESTERONES

a) Progesterone as already noted, acts with estrogen to bring about the

menstrual cycle.

b)During pregnancy, it quiets the muscles of the uterus so that an implanted

embryo will not be aborted and helps prepare breast tissue for lactation
 TESTES
● The male sex organ that also serves as an endocrine gland
● The paired oval testes of the male are suspended in a sac, the
scrotum, outside the pelvic cavity.
● Testes produce male sex cells or sperm and male sex hormones
testosterone

PRODUCTION

● FSH( follicle-stimulating hormone) causes the production of

sperm
● LH causes the production of testosterone
FUNCTIONS

TESTOSTERONE

● At puberty, testosterone promotes the growth and maturation of

the reproductive system organs to prepare the young man for
reproduction.
● It also causes the male’s secondary sex characteristics (growth of
facial hair, development of heavy bones and muscles, and lowering
of the voice) to appear and stimulates the male sex drive.
● In adults, testosterone is necessary for continuous production of
sperm.
 ADRENAL GLANDS

Location: They are flat pyramidal shaped, curved over the top of
each kidney.

Structure: Although it looks like a single organ, they are actually

two endocrine organs; Adrenal Medulla and Adrenal Cortex.

Hormones:
● Epinephrine and norepinephrine are released by adrenal
medulla.
● 3 classes of hormones are released by the adrenal cortex;
Mineralocorticoids, Glucocorticoids and sex hormones.
Function of Adrenal cortex hormones
Hormones of Adrenal cortex are collectively called corticosteroids.
1. Mineralocorticoids: (mainly Aldosterone).
● Regulares the mineral ( or salt) content of the blood.
● Their target is the kidney tubules.
● When aldosterone is released, Na+ ions are reabsorbed and K+ are released into the
urine.
● When Na+ are reabsorbed, water is reabsorbed too(osmosis).
● In this way, blood volume and B.P are adjusted.
2. Glucocorticoids:(corticosterone, cortisone but mainly
cortisol)
● Maintain normal cell metabolism.
● Promote Protein breakdown, lipolysis and gluconeogenesis.
● Helps the body fight long term stressors.
● When glucocorticoids are released, fats and even proteins are broken down to
glucose.
● Anti-Inflammatory: Inhibit WBC hence they slow down wound healing.
● Depression of Immune system: High doses can depress immune response
hence they are prescribed during organ transplant.
3. Sex hormones: (or Androgens)

● In both male and female Androgens are released but in relatively small quantities.
● Mainly testosterone, but some estrogen is also produced.
● In females after menopause, ovarian secretion of estrogen ceases and all estrogen
is derived from adrenal androgens.
Function of Adrenal Medulla hormones
1. Epinephrine: (Adrenaline) and Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
● Enhances and prolongs the effects of “ fight or flight” response of the sympathetic
nervous system
● Increases Heart rate, B.P, Blood glucose level and dilate small passageways of the
lungs.
● These events result in more oxygen and faster circulation of blood, mainly to brain,
heart and muscles.
 THYMUS GLAND

Location:The thymus gland is located in the

thoracic cavity, behind the sternum.
Hormones:Thymosin and other hormones:
Thymic humoral factor, thymic factor and
Thymopoietin.
Promotes the maturation of T-cells
WBCs. This gland is very important
in immune system.