MODULE I

Casting Fundamentals
CASTING PROCESS

 During casting, liquid metal is poured into the cavity of a mould which then allows the liquid to
cool and solidify in a controlled fashion.
 Casting of metallic liquid is one of the most widely used processes for making shaped
components since liquid has a nature of taking the shape of its container
 Casting process steps
• Mould making / mould material
• Melting
• Pouring of molten metal
• Solidification of liquid
• Removing cast from mould 2

• Cleaning cast component

EFFECT OF SOLIDIFICATION
 Casting forms the shape of a shaped component or a piece of

material from liquid.

 Solidification controls the microstructure of the component or

material formed during casting.

Aluminum
 This microstructure is called as-solidified microstructure ingot

For a piece of material made from casting, its as-

solidified microstructure is mostly destroyed by
further thermo mechanical processing of the
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material such as rolling, extrusion and forging.
Ice cube
 HOW LIQUID METAL / ALLOY SOLIDIFY

 When being cooled, liquid of pure metals and eutectic alloys solidifies at
a constant temperature
 Liquid of most alloys used in industry do not have eutectic compositions
and thus solidify across a range of temperatures which can normally
be found out from binary or ternary alloy phase diagrams
 During very slow cooling (alloys), the temperature at which
solidification starts is called liquidus temperature, and the temperature
at which the solidification finishes is called solidus temperature
 The difference between liquidus temperature and solidus temperature
is called freezing range. 4
COOLING CURVE
COMPARISON
PURE METAL
AND ALLOY
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SOLIDIFICATION COMPARISON
Pure metal Alloy
Pure metals have single freezing point Freeze over a range of temperature
The temperature falls steadily until freezing The temperatures at which alloy solidification starts
commences at a particular point. and finishes varies with its composition, and can be
determined by the liquidus and solidus lines.
During solidification, the temperature more or less Since the component of the alloy having higher
remains constant due to release of latent heat. freezing point starts solidifying first, the frozen
metal adhering to the mould walls will have a
Actually, there may be a slight increase in different composition from that of the original alloy
temperature if super cooling has occurred

The crystals near the mould walls are small and The direction of crystal growth is thus dependent
equiaxed (i.e. their axes randomly oriented). upon the composition gradient within the casting,
variation of solidus temperature with composition,
and the thermal gradient within the mould.
On further solidification, crystals grow with their The crystal growth in the case of alloys is of 6
axes perpendicular to the mould and these are dendritic structure.
columnar in shape
NUCLEATION OF SOLIDS
 Nucleation is the process through which unstable solid
embryos in the liquid becomes stable nuclei Without
adding
 Nucleation is the process by which the first small crystals grain
form when a liquid solidifies refiner
 It is the birth of solid
Nucleation of solid is not an easy process:
 Liquid may have to be cooled to a temperature much lower than 0.02wt%
the liquidus temperature carbon is
added to the
 Some solid particles (grain refiner particles) may need to be melt to form
added to assist nucleation. grain refiner
particles

Macrographs of a Mg-9wt 7
%Al-1wt%Zn casting
NUCLEATION
 The pattern of nucleation during solidification determines many important microstructural
features such as phase composition, grain size and structure and distribution of second phase particles,
all of which influence the final material properties
 Nucleation is thought to occur in two ways
• Heterogeneous nucleation, where nuclei are formed on some external surface which acts as a
catalyst for the formation of the nuclei
• Homogeneous nucleation, where nuclei are formed within the liquid without any aid of an
external catalyst.
 Heterogeneous nucleation is the most significant of these two nucleation mechanisms, since it is the
mechanism by which most real solidification processes occur. 8
HOMOGENEOUS/HETEROGENEOUS NUCLEATION THEORY

 When a liquid is progressively cooled, the atoms are in a state of constant motion, and some of the atoms form
small clusters which have the structure of the solid phase
 These clusters, called embryos, are potential nuclei.
 When the embryos exceed a critical size, it is energetically favorable for them to grow.

 Heterogeneous nucleation theory is an extension of the homogeneous nucleation theory described above.
 Generally, metals solidify at much lower undercooling's than predicted by homogeneous nucleation theory,
and this is thought to be due to the presence of impurities in the melt and to the mould wall which can act
as catalysts of the nucleation process
 Heterogeneous or catalytic nucleation is energetically more desirable since the surface energy barrier
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is reduced by the presence of the catalyst.
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HETEROGENEOUS NUCLEATION THEORY
 The action of the catalyst is to reduce the surface energy barrier to nucleation.
  can take any value from 0-180°. A small contact angle between the catalyst and nucleus
corresponds to a good nucleant, and a large contact angle corresponds to a bad nucleant.

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GROWTH OF SOLID

 Growth is the process in which solid nuclei grow into large solid grains which may have either
equiaxed, columnar or dendritic shapes
• Heat is released when solid grows
• The heat must be removed, otherwise, the growth will stop
 The direction of solid growth is controlled by the way heat

is removed.

Progressive solidification is starts at the walls of casting and

progresses perpendicular to the surface.

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Directional solidification is occurring at the end of the casting and

it is works towards the sprue

SOLIDIFICATION TIME
 If geometrically similar casting of different size are poured into the same

mould material, time of complete solidification will be proportional to the

square of their linear dimensions.

 For comparing casting of different shapes the relationship has been generalized into

the form known as Chvorinov’e rule.

Chvorinov's rule suggests that sections of the casting having a large 13

volume-to-surface area ratio will take a long time to solidify. Such hot spots
should be avoided when designing castings because they are potential
SOLIDIFICATION TIME

where K is a constant i.e. solidification factor and is given by

where m and  - density of metal and molten metal

 - thermal diffusivity of mould =
L – latent heat of liquid metal
cm and c – specific heat of mould material and molten metal material
m – temperature at which liquid metal is poured into mould
f – freezing temperature of metal 0 – initial temperature of mould

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SOLIDIFICATION TIME
The quantitative results of the effect of the mould – casting interface on the freezing time can be
obtained for some basic shapes. Now solidification time can be written as

For an infinite plane

For an infinite long cylinder
For a sphere

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PROBLEM ON SOLIDIFICATION TIME
Two castings of the same metal have the same surface area. One casting is in form of a sphere and
the other is a cube. What is the ratio of the solidification time for the sphere to that of the cube?
Solution
Solidification Time, ts = K (V/A)2

For sphere and cube of given case As = Ac

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PROBLEM ON SOLIDIFICATION TIME

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18
Two solid workpieces (i) Sphere with radius R, (ii) a
cylinder with diameter equal to its height, have to be
sand cast. Both workpieces have the same volume.
Show that the cylindrical workpieces will solidify faster
than the spherical workpieces. (GATE)

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Fluid Flow
The molten metal is poured through a pouring basin or cup; it then flows through the gating system
(consisting of sprue, runners, and gates) into the mold cavity.

successful casting requires proper design and control of the solidification process to
ensure adequate fluid flow in the system.

For example, an important function of the gating system in sand casting is to trap
contaminants (such as oxides and other inclusions) and remove them from the
molten metal, by having the contaminants adhere to the walls of the gating system,
thereby preventing them from reaching the mold cavity.

properly designed gating system helps avoid or minimize such problems as premature cooling,
turbulence, and gas entrapment
Two basic principles of fluid flow are relevant to gating design: Bernoulli’s theorem and the law of mass
continuity. 22
 Bernoulli’s Theorem. This theorem is based on the principle of the conservation of energy, and relates
pressure, velocity, the elevation of the fluid at any location in the system, and the frictional losses in a
system that is full of liquid.

where h is the elevation above a certain reference level, p is the pressure at that elevation, v is
the velocity of the liquid at that elevation, ρ is the density of the fluid (assuming that it is
incompressible), and g is the gravitational constant.
Mass Continuity. The law of mass continuity states that, for incompressible liquids and in a system with
impermeable walls, the rate of flow is constant.

where Q is the volume rate of flow (such as m3/s), A is the cross-sectional area of the liquid
stream, and v is the average velocity of the liquid in that cross-section.

According to this law, the flow rate must be maintained everywhere in the system.
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The wall permeability is important, because otherwise some liquid will escape through the walls (as occurs
in sand molds); thus, the flow rate will decrease as the liquid moves through the system.
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ELEMENTS OF GATING SYSTEM

 Downsprue, through which metal enters

the runner, and from which it in turn
passes through the ingates into the mold
cavity.
 Primary choke restricts or regulates the
rate of pouring
 At the top of downsprue is pouring cup to
• To prevent the entry of dirt or slag into the
minimize splash and turbulence. Promote
downsprue, the pouring basin may have skim
entry of clean metal into downsprue
core, a strainer, a delay screen or a Sprue plug
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[finite.solutions]
ELEMENTS OF GATING SYSTEM

 Splash core – placed in bottom of the pouring basin, at the bottom of the downsprue, or
wherever the flowing metal impinges with more than normal force
 Riser – casting of heavy section or of high shrinkage alloys commonly require a riser or
reservoir. Riser provides the feed metal which flows from the riser to the casting to make up
for the shrink which takes place in the casting metal as it changes from liquid to solid
 Depending on the location, the riser is described as a top riser or side riser and may be
either an open riser or blind riser

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GATING SYSTEM DESIGN - ADVANTAGES

 Fill the mold rapidly, without laps or requiring excessively high pouring temperatures
 Reduce or prevent agitation or turbulence and the formation of dross in the mold
 Prevent slag, scum, dross and eroded sand from entering the casting by way of the gating
system
 Prevent aspiration of air or mold gases into the metal stream
 Avoid erosion of molds and cores
 Aid in obtaining suitable thermal gradients to attain directional solidification and minimize
distortion in the casting
 Obtain maximum yield and minimum grinding costs
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 Provide for ease of pouring, utilizing available ladle and crane equipment.
TYPE OF GATES
 Gate is used to direct metal into a mold cavity. A gate may be designed for
o Ease of molding
o To avoid turbulent flow
o To prevent washing of sand from the mold walls
o To avoid inclusion of dross or slag with the metal entering the mold
Different types of Gates
o Parting gate,
o Branch gate,
o Pencil gate,
o Horn gate,
o Top Gate, 34

o Bottom gate, Finger gate, Wedge gate, Ring gate, Whirl gate
 TYPES OF GATE – PARTING GATE

 These gate enter the mold cavity along the parting

line separating the cope and drag portions of the
mold.

 Contain devices such as skim bobs or relief Sprues to

collect dross or slag or relieving pouring pressures
(a, b, c)

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TYPES OF GATE – PARTING GATE

 Design ‘d’ illustrates the use of a pouring basin to serve

this function

 Design ‘e’ contains a shrink bob serving the dual function

of slag or dross collector and metal reservoir to feed the
casting as it shrinks

 Design ‘f’ and ‘g’ illustrate the use of core inserts to filter
the metal or prevent erosion of the mold
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TYPES OF GATE

 Bottom gate – enters the casting cavity at the bottom of the

drag half of the mold – used particularly for steel castings to
reduce erosion and gas entrapment and to prevent splashing,
which can result in cold shots

 Branch gate – used to feed a single casting at several points

or a number of individual castings

 Horn gate – variety of bottom gate. One objection to its use is 37

a tendency for producing a fountain effect in the casting

[ maritime.org]
TYPES OF GATE

Variations of top-gating system since metal enters the mold

from above. The design are intended to break up the metal
stream so that it enters the mold with a minimum of turbulence
and erosive action
 Whirl gate – accomplish same purpose as parting gates

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DESIGN OF GATING SYSTEM
 The gating system is made of same molding material as that used for the mold cavity,
from the standpoint of convenience or for other reasons, some other material is used for a
part of the gating system

Mold Materials
 Pouring basin or pouring cups, Skim gates or strainer cores and splash cores are made up of
baked sand
 Strainers, downsprue and gate cores may also be obtained in ceramic materials called tile
 Occasionally, a certain portion of gating system may be constructed of a high-density sand
such as zircon sand to prevent washing or metal penetration 39
DESIGN OF GATING SYSTEM

Fluid Flow
 Problems concerned with fluid flow – gas contamination, inclusion of dross or slag and aspiration
of gas
 The liquids flow either in a stream lined laminar fashion or in a turbulent manner – it depends
upon the velocity of liquid, the cross section of the flow channel and the viscosity of the liquid. The
relationship is expressed as

 Turbulent flow prevails when the Reynolds number (Rn) reaches a certain critical value (Rn  3500)

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FLUID
FLOW
PE KE/VE + Pr E constant PxE+FE

fluid friction between metal and mould wall

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DESIGN OF GATING SYSTEM

Pouring time (t)

 Metal or metal poured too cold would freeze too fast to fill out the mold or would develop cold
shuts
 Very rapid filling of the mold also would present such problems as having an adequate gating
system to handle a large volume of metal in a short time, erosion of the mold wall, rough surface,
excessive shrinkage and other possible defects.
 Therefore optimum pouring rate, or pouring rate range for most of castings that must be
established
 For comparison, a pouring time of 15 to 45 second is recommended for brass or bronze
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castings of less than 300 lb (136 kg)

DESIGN OF GATING SYSTEM (POURING
TIME)
K – is a fluidity factor
 Grey-iron castings  1000 lb
determined by dividing the

(
𝒕=𝑲 𝟎 . 𝟗𝟓+
𝑻
𝟎 .𝟖𝟓𝟑 )√𝑾 fluidity of the specific iron
obtained from composition
 Grey-iron castings  1000 lb factor vs pouring temperature
vs fluidity
(
𝒕=𝑲 𝟎 . 𝟗𝟓+
𝑻
𝟎 .𝟖𝟓𝟑 ) √𝑾
𝟑
T – is average thickness in
inches
 Shell-molded ductile iron (vertical
W – is the weight in pounds
pouring) 𝒕=𝑲 𝟏 √ 𝑾
K1 – 1.8 sections from 3/8 to 1
in., 1.4 for thinner sections and 43
 Steel casting 𝒕=𝑲 √ 𝑾 2.0 for heavier sections
44
Choke area
 Choke area occurs at the bottom of Sprue to establish
the metal velocity as soon as possible 𝑾
𝑪𝒉𝒐𝒌𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂( 𝑨)=
 The smallest area in the feeding channels controls the flow 𝒅𝒕𝑪 √ 𝟐𝒈𝑯
rate into the mold cavity and consequently controls the A – Choke area, sq. in
pouring time
W – Casting weight
 If choke area occurs at the base of Sprue, the proper area
d – density of molten metal
can be calculated by applying Bernoulli’s theorem.
H – effective height of metal
head

C – efficiency factor or nozzle

coefficient which is a function
of the gating system used

g – acceleration due to gravity 45

t – pouring time, s
SPRUE DESIGN
 As the metal gains velocity in passing through the Sprue, it loses its pressure energy or head
 The loss of pressure head in a Sprue may result in a tendency to form a vortex on the metal in the
Sprue or a negative pressure effect in the metal column so that gas from the mold is sucked into
the metal stream.
 The remedy is to taper the Sprue opening. This also reduces mold erosion and metal
turbulence
 Sprue size is often selected so that it controls the pouring rate; i.e., the major restriction to flow
in the gating system occurs in the Sprue
 Establishment of proper flow characteristics and of reducing the rate of flow of metal
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entering the mold cavity from the gates
SPRUE DESIGN

 Light weight metals like Aluminum are subject to drossing, the use of a restricted Sprue area to
reduce the velocity of the metals may lead to drossing of the metal as it enters the runner
 Metals such as steel and cast iron are not prone to dross. Since steel is poured at high temperature
and chills very rapidly, the factor that determines the Sprue design is “the entry of metal into the
mould”.
 But the need to get the metal into the mold fast enough to avoid excessive chilling. If this is the
predominant consideration, Sprue-runner ratios may differ radically from those advocated for the
light weight metals
 The ideal Sprue and gating design for light weight metal is presented as follows
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SPRUE FOR LIGHT WEIGHT METALS LIKE
ALUMINUM

Horizontal
gates

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Gating Ratio
 There is a definite relationship between the cross-sectional areas of the Sprue, runners,
and in-gates, to produce the best filling conditions for the mold
 The rate of filling the mold should not exceed the ability of the Sprue to keep the entire
gating system full of liquid metal at all times
 The cross section of the runner should be reduced in size as each gate is passed.

An example of the use of gating

ratio can be made with figure

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GATING RATIO
 Aluminum was used to make this flat plate casting, and one of the gating ratios that has proven
successful for this type of casting is a 1:3:3 ratio
 The first number refers to the cross-sectional area of the Sprue base, the second number
refers to the total cross section of all the runners from that Sprue, and the third number
refers to the total cross-sectional area of the in-gates
 In other words, the area of the Sprue base is 1/3 that of the total area of the runners, and the total
cross-sectional area of the runners equals the total cross-sectional area of the in-gates

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GATING RATIO
 Thus it is seen that the gating system can vary widely from one leading to a non-pressurized,
or “reverse choke”, system, such as 1:2:4 or 1:3:3, to one where the choke and pressure are
at a maximum at the ingate, such as 4:8:3 or 1:2:1.
 In changing from one in-gate to two while maintaining the same in-gate ratio, the areas
of the two in-gates should equal that of single in-gate system

Metal Ratio
Steel 1:2:1.5
Grey cast iron 1:4:4
Ductile iron, dry sand mold 10:9:8
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Brass 1:1:1 – 1:1:3
Riser Design. A major concern in the design of castings is the size of risers and their placement.
Risers are designed according to the following basic rules:
1. The riser must not solidify before the casting does. This rule usually is satisfied by avoiding the use of
small risers and by using cylindrical risers with small aspect ratios (i.e., small ratios of height to cross-
section). Spherical risers are the most efficient shape, but are difficult to work with.

2. The riser volume must be large enough to provide a sufficient amount of molten metal to compensate
for shrinkage in the casting.

3. Junctions between the casting and the riser should not develop hot spots, where shrinkage porosity can
occur.

4. Risers must be placed such that the molten metal can be delivered to locations where it is most needed.

5. There must be sufficient pressure to drive the molten metal into locations in the mold where it is
needed. Thus, risers are not as useful for metals with low density (such as aluminum alloys) as they are for
those with higher density (such as steel and cast irons).
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6. The pressure head from the riser should suppress cavity formation and encourage complete filling of the
mold cavity.
RISER
 Approximate solidification shrinkage of some foundry alloys

Material Volumetric Shrinkage, %

Medium carbon 2.5 – 3.0
steel
1% carbon steel 4.0
Pure aluminum 6.60
Pure copper 4.92
Grey cast iron 1.90 to negative depending on
graphitization composition, etc
White cast iron 4.0-5.50

 Important factors in determining riser size

 Shrinkage 53

 Freezing mechanism
54
 GENERAL DESIGN RULES FOR RISER NECKS
USED IN IRON CASTINGS

General riser

Side riser for plates

Top round riser 55

Aspiration - a process whereby air is drawn in or entrapped in the liquid may take
place.

if a sprue has a constant cross-sectional area and molten metal is poured into it,
regions can develop where the liquid loses contact with the sprue walls.

One of two basic alternatives is used to prevent aspiration: (a) A tapered sprue is used
to prevent molten metal separation from the sprue wall or

(b) straight-sided sprues are supplied with a choking mechanism at the bottom,
consisting of either
a choke core or a runner choke.

The choke slows the flow sufficiently to prevent aspiration in the sprue.

The exothermic insulation riser sleeve has dual efficacy of heating and heat
preservation and further improves the efficiency of feeding

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PROBLEM ON RISER
Determine the dimensions of a cylindrical riser to be used for casting a
aluminium cube of sides 15 cm. The volume shrinkage of aluminium during
solidification is 6.5%

Solution

At first determine the diameter /height ratio of the most compact cylinder so
that, for a given volume, the surface area is minimum

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PROBLEM ON RISER

From equations (1) and (2),

For a cylindrical riser is true if the riser is attached to the side of casting

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PROBLEM ON RISER
Now, the minimum volume for riser,

Where Volume of casting (Vc )

Diameter of riser, D = 9.43 cm = h

Now, for riser

For casting

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PROBLEM ON RISER
Since, the riser will not have a longer solidification time then the riser may be designed as follow

With the minimum value of D = 15 cm,

The volume is much more than minimum Vr necessary.
Now consider the top riser in which a riser is attached to the top of a casting when the optimum
cylindrical shape is obtained with

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PROBLEM ON RISER

Which is greater than the minimum Vr necessary. Although with a top riser there is a little saving of
material as compared with the side riser, we have to use a deeper mould with the top riser. Thus, in
this case, the side riser may be chosen.

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In a casting process, insulating materials are used in a riser to slow down the cooling of
molten metal, allowing it to remain liquid longer and compensate for shrinkage during
solidification; essentially, the insulation helps maintain a molten metal reservoir to feed the
casting as it solidifies, resulting in a better quality casting with fewer defects.
Key points about insulating materials in risers:

•Heat retention:
•The primary function of insulation is to minimize heat loss from the molten metal in the riser,
allowing it to stay liquid for a longer period.
•Reduced riser size:
•By efficiently insulating the riser, smaller risers can be used, which can save material and
improve casting efficiency.
•Better casting quality:
•Maintaining a molten metal supply through the riser helps to prevent shrinkage cavities and
other casting defects.
Common insulating materials used in risers:
•Ceramic sleeves:
•These are often used in precision casting applications due to their high heat resistance and
good thermal insulating properties.
•Exothermic sleeves:
•These sleeves generate heat during the solidification process, further aiding in maintaining the62
molten metal pool in the riser.
•Insulating refractory materials:
•Various types of refractory materials with good insulating capabilities can be used depending