Data and data collection

techniques
By
Asad Ali Khan
 What is data
• Data is distinct pieces of information,
usually formatted in a particular way”. Data
can be measured, collected, reported, and
analyzed, whereupon it is often visualized
using graphs, images, or other analysis tools.
• Raw data (“unprocessed data”) may be a
collection of numbers or characters before
it’s been “cleaned” and corrected by
researchers.
 What is a research data?
• Research data refers to the information
collected, observed, or generated during a
research project to answer specific questions
or test hypotheses.
• It serves as the foundation for analysis,
interpretation, and conclusions in scientific
and academic studies. The quality, relevance,
and accuracy of research data significantly
impact the validity and reliability of findings.
 Types of Research Data

Three-fold division
• Primary Data
• Secondary Data
• Quantitative Data
• Qualitative Data
• Structured Data
• Unstructured Data
 Primary Data

• Data collected directly by the researcher for a

specific study.
• It Provides firsthand and original information.
• Examples:
– Responses from a questionnaire distributed during
a study.
– Experimental observations recorded in a lab.
 Secondary Data
• Data originally collected by others but reused
by the researcher for a different study or
usage.
• It Saves time and resources when primary
data collection is unnecessary.
• Examples:
– Census data used to study population trends.
– Previous research papers and published datasets.
 Quantitative Data

• Numerical data that can be measured and

analyzed statistically.
• Helps identify patterns, correlations, and
causal relationships.
Examples:
Test scores from students.
• Votes counting.
 Qualitative Data
• Non-numerical data that provides descriptive and subjective insights.
• Explores experiences, perceptions, and underlying meanings.
• Examples:
– Open-ended survey responses.
– Interview transcripts.
– Field notes from ethnographic studies.
Note: Ethnographic research originated in the field of anthropology, and
it often involved an anthropologist living with a community for an
extended period of time in order to understand their culture.
 Structured Data
• Organized in a fixed format like rows and
columns, making it easy to analyze.
• It facilitates statistical and computational
analysis.
• Examples:
– Databases with election results.
– Parliamentary party records in congress.
 Unstructured Data

• Lacks a predefined format and requires

specialized tools for analysis.
• It Offers insights from non-standardized
sources.
• Examples:
– Social media posts.
– Video recordings from observational studies.
Methods for Collecting Research Data
 Survey

• Survey means collecting information about a

group of people by asking them questions and
analyzing the results.
 effective Survey

• To conduct an effective survey, follow these

six steps:
• Determine who will participate in the survey
• Decide the type of survey (mail, online, or in-
person)
• Design the survey questions and layout
• Distribute the survey
• Analyze the responses
• Write up the results
 What are surveys used for?

• Surveys are used as a method of gathering data in many

different fields. They are a good choice when you want to
find out about the characteristics, preferences, opinions, or
beliefs of a group of people.
• Common uses of survey research include:
• Social research: investigating the experiences and
characteristics of different social groups
• Politics: measuring public opinion about parties and
policies
• Psychology: researching personality traits, preferences and
behaviours.
 types of survey

• There are two main types of survey:

• A questionnaire, where a list of questions is
distributed by mail, online or in person, and
respondents fill it out themselves.
• An interview, where the researcher asks a set of
questions by phone or in person and records the
responses.
 Design the survey questions

• Next, you need to decide which questions you will

ask and how you will ask them. It’s important to
consider:
• The type of questions
• The content of the questions
• The phrasing of the questions
• The ordering and layout of the survey
 Open-ended vs closed-ended questions

• There are two main forms of survey questions:

open-ended and closed-ended. Many surveys use a
combination of both.
• Closed-ended questions give the respondent a
predetermined set of answers to choose from.
• The open-ended question has no predetermined
answers to choose from. Instead, the respondent
answers in their own words.
 Open-ended questions

• Open-ended questions are best for qualitative

research.
• Open questions are most common in interviews,
but you can also use them in questionnaires. They
are often useful because they answer the follow-up
questions as well and generate detailed response in
comparison to closed questions.
• Example: which political party do you like the most?
and why?
 close-ended questions

• Closed-ended questions give the respondent a

predetermined set of answers to choose from. A
closed-ended question can include:
• A binary answer (e.g. yes/no or agree/disagree)
• A scale (e.g. a Likert scale with five points ranging
from strongly agree to strongly disagree).
• Closed-ended questions are best for quantitative
research. They provide you with numerical data that
can be statistically analyzed to find patterns, trends,
and correlations.
 sampling

• When you conduct research about a group of

people, it’s rarely possible to collect data from every
person in that group. Instead, you select a sample.
The sample is the group of individuals who will
actually participate in the research.
• To draw valid conclusions from your results, you
have to carefully decide how you will select a
sample that is representative of the group as a
whole. This is called a sampling method.
 types of sampling

• There are two primary types of sampling methods

that you can use in your research:
• Probability sampling: involves random selection of
sample from the whole group/population.
• Non-probability sampling: involves non-random
selection based on convenience or other criteria,
allowing you to easily collect data.
• Note : You should clearly explain how you selected
your sample in the methodology section of your
paper or thesis.
 Interviews

• One-on-one conversations to collect detailed

qualitative data.
• Best For: Exploring personal experiences or
opinions.
• Examples:
– Interviewing party leaders about election
campaign.
– Discussing patient experiences with a healthcare
provider.
 types of Interviews

• Structured interviews: The questions are

predetermined in both topic and order.
• Semi-structured interviews: A few questions
are predetermined, but other questions aren’t
planned.
• Unstructured interviews: None of the
questions are predetermined.
• Focus group: Group discussions facilitated by a
moderator to gather diverse perspectives.
 Focus Groups

• Group discussions facilitated by a moderator

to gather diverse perspectives.
• Best For: Exploratory research and testing
concepts.
• Examples:
– Discussing educational policy changes with
teachers.
 Observations

• Systematically watching and recording

behaviors or events.
• Best For: Behavioral and ethnographic studies.
• Examples:
– Observing classroom interactions to study
teaching methods.
– Monitoring election campaign.
 Experiments

• Controlled studies to test hypotheses and

measure effects.
• Best For: Establishing causal relationships.
• Examples:
– Testing the impact of a new drug on blood sugar
levels.
– Evaluating the effectiveness of a marketing
strategy.
 Secondary Data Analysis

• Reusing existing data for new research

purposes.
• Best For: Studies with limited resources or
time constraints.
• Examples:
– Using demographic data from government
reports.
– Analyzing historical election records for upcoming
election.
 Data Mining

• Extracting patterns from large datasets using

computational algorithms.
• Best For: Identifying trends and making
predictions.
• Examples:
– Analyzing voters behavior for upcoming election
campaign.
– Examining transaction records to detect fraud.
 Advantages of Using Research Data

• Empirical Evidence: Provides a solid foundation for

conclusions and recommendations.
• Supports Decision-Making: Enables data-driven
decisions in various fields.
• Enhances Validity: Ensures findings are based on
observable and measurable phenomena.
• Diverse Formats: Allows flexibility in combining
qualitative and quantitative insights.
• Repeatability: Facilitates verification and replication
of studies.
 Challenges in Collecting and Using Research Data

• Data Quality: Incomplete or inaccurate data can

compromise findings.
• Ethical Concerns: Ensuring participant confidentiality and
informed consent is critical.
• Resource Constraints: Collecting primary data can be time-
consuming and expensive.
• Complexity: Managing large or unstructured datasets
requires advanced tools and expertise.
• Bias Risk: Researcher or respondent biases can affect data
collection and interpretation.