UNIT 3

ESTIMATION AND
SCHEDULING
• What is Project Plan?

• Once a project is found to be possible, computer code project managers

undertake project design. Project designing is undertaken and completed
even before any development activity starts. Project designing consists of
subsequent essential activities: Estimating the subsequent attributes of the
project:

• Project size: What’s going to be the downside quality in terms of the

trouble and time needed to develop the product?
• Cost: What proportion is it reaching to value to develop the project?
• Duration: How long is it to reach design plate amended development?
• Effort: What proportion of effort would be required?
The effectiveness of the following design activities relies on the accuracy of those estimations.

 planning force and alternative resources

 workers organization and staffing plans
 Risk identification, analysis, and abatement designing
 Miscellaneous arrangements like quality assurance plans, configuration, management
arrangements, etc.
Precedence ordering among project planning activities:

The different project-connected estimates done by a project manager have already been
mentioned. The below diagram shows the order in which vital project coming up with
activities is also undertaken. It may be simply discovered that size estimation is the 1st
activity. It’s conjointly the foremost basic parameter supported that all alternative coming up
with activities square measure dispensed, alternative estimations like the estimation of effort,
cost, resource, and project length also are vital elements of the project coming up with.
Precedence ordering among project planning
activities:

The different project-connected estimates done by a project manager

have already been mentioned. The diagram shows the order in which
vital project coming up with activities is also undertaken.
It may be simply discovered that size estimation is the 1st activity.
It’s conjointly the foremost basic parameter supported that all
alternative coming up with activities square measure dispensed,
alternative estimations like the estimation of effort, cost, resource,
and project length also are vital elements of the project coming up
with.
The size is the crucial parameter for the estimation of other activities.
Resources requirement are required based on cost and development time.
Project schedule may prove to be very useful for controlling and
monitoring the progress of the project. This is dependent on resources &
development time. Software Cost Estimation
For any new software project, it is necessary to know how much it will cost
to develop and how much development time will it take. These estimates
are needed before development is initiated, but how is this done? Several
estimation procedures have been developed and are having the following
attributes in common.

 Project scope must be established in advanced.

 Software metrics are used as a support from which evaluation is made.
 The project is broken into small chunks which are estimated individually.
 To achieve true cost & schedule estimate, several option arise.
 Delay estimation
 Used symbol decomposition techniques to generate project cost and
schedule estimates.
 Acquire one or more automated estimation tools.
Uses of Cost Estimation:

During the planning stage, one needs to choose how many

engineers are required for the project and to develop a schedule.

In monitoring the project's progress, one needs to access whether

the project is progressing according to the procedure and takes
corrective action, if necessary.
What is Project Scope?

• Project scope is the detailed description of all the goals and objectives that
must be met in order to successfully complete a project.

• The document outlines the Project's goals, expectations, tasks, deadlines, and
budget. The degree outlines specific deadlines and expectations for each
partner involved in the project, outlining what will and won't be completed as
part of it.

• The Scope is the part of the Project Management that is responsible for the
boundaries, objectives, and deliverables of the Project. In other words, it is the
total amount of activities or tasks that need to be done under the Project
Execution.
The Importance of Defining a Project Scope
Clarity of Objectives: A well-defined scope clearly specifies the project's objectives,
deliverables, and constraints. By doing this, confusion is avoided and scope creep is
prevented because everyone involved is aware of what is expected of them and what is
not.
Alignment: It aligns stakeholders' expectations with project goals. When everyone agrees
on the project's scope upfront, there's less likelihood of disagreements or
misunderstandings later on.
Resource Management: Resource allocation benefits from having a clear scope. Project
managers are able to precisely predict the amount of time, money, and labour needed.
Resource waste on activities that aren't necessary for the project's success can occur
when there are unclear boundaries.
Quality Control: Defining a clear scope facilitates the establishment of quality standards.
Teams can measure and assure the quality of the end product or service more easily when
they know exactly what they're expected to offer.
• Client Satisfaction: Customer satisfaction is increased by a clearly defined scope.
Customers are more likely to be happy with the outcome when they are aware of
exactly what they will receive and when they will receive it.
• Control Scope Creep: When there is no clear scope for a project, it might be subject to
scope creep, which is the unanticipated addition of more work over time, beyond
budget, and causing delays. Setting limits on the scope aids in containing these
alterations.
Steps for defining project scope

Define the project's goals. Every project has an objective — that's why you're doing it in
the first place. ...

Define the project's deliverables. ...

Define the project's tasks and activities. ...
Define the project's exclusions. ...
Define the project's constraints.
 WHAT IS A FEASIBILITY STUDY IN
SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT?
• Regarding software development, the feasibility study ensures that every little detail of
the project's or software's viability is examined.
• The Software Project Management Process consists of four steps at this feasibility study
stage. Technically speaking, a feasibility study can assist you in conducting multiple
analysis to determine whether the software will survive the market.
• This feasibility study aids in developers' proper understanding of the product, including
development, implementation, project contribution to the organization, etc.
• Companies are also free to use industry experts' software development services.
Key Aspects of Feasibility Study in Software Engineering
Here are the key aspects typically covered in a feasibility study in software engineering:

Technical Feasibility: This aspect assesses whether the proposed software project is
technically possible with the available technology, resources, and expertise. It considers
software development tools, hardware requirements, integration with existing systems, and
potential technical challenges.

Operational Feasibility: Operational feasibility evaluates whether the software will fit smoothly
into the organization's existing processes and whether users can adapt. It considers factors
like user training, change management, and the impact on daily operations.

Economic Feasibility: This part of the study focuses on the financial aspects of the project. It
includes a cost-benefit analysis to determine if the project is economically viable. This
analysis involves estimating the development costs, maintenance costs, potential benefits,
and return on investment (ROI). It helps stakeholders understand whether the project is
financially justified.
• Scheduling Feasibility: Scheduling feasibility assesses whether the project can be
completed within the required timeframe. It considers factors like project scope,
resource availability, and potential risks that might impact the project schedule.

• Legal and Regulatory Feasibility: This examines whether the proposed software project
complies with legal and regulatory requirements. It may involve data privacy,
intellectual property rights, and industry-specific regulations.

• Market Feasibility (if applicable): For commercial software projects, market feasibility
examines whether there is a demand for the proposed software in the target market. It
involves market research, competition analysis, and potential market adoption.
• The outcome of a feasibility study can be one of the following:

• Go Decision: If the study concludes that the project is feasible regarding technical,
operational, economic, scheduling, and legal aspects, the project can proceed to the
next phase.
• No-Go Decision: If the study determines that the project is not feasible or too risky, it
may lead to a decision to abandon the project or revise its scope.
• Revised Scope Decision: In some cases, the study may reveal that the original project
scope needs modification to increase feasibility. In this case, stakeholders may refine
the project's goals and constraints.

• A well-conducted feasibility study is crucial for making informed decisions and avoiding
costly and time-consuming errors in the later stages of a software project. It helps in
reducing the risks associated with software development and ensures that resources
are invested wisely.
Conclusion: (Feasibility Study)
Your company has every justification to employ a software engineering feasibility study.
Using this technique, your company can determine what factors lead to success and
failure and adjust its plans accordingly.
You can determine which one is most effective for your project and which is not.
A thorough feasibility study gives businesses access to risk factors, market analysis,
labour requirements, funding, and other information that helps them decide whether to
pursue the project, allowing them to receive higher returns on their investment.
• Resource Management :

• Why Is Resource Management Important?

• Resource management is all about transparency so you can see, monitor,
and attain what is required to deliver projects.
• It also enables you to minimize both idle time and overutilization of
resources.
• With full visibility both work and resources, you can more effectively
schedule, plan, and manage your resources, aligning them with the right
projects at the right time.
• You also reduce risk, seeing potential resource conflicts early on for more
responsive mitigation, typically by reprioritizing projects or resources.
• In this fast-evolving, high-demand world, these benefits are exactly what
the enterprise is looking for and one that the Project Management Office
(PMO) and / or resource managers can deliver if given the right tools and
process to follow.

• Keep in mind that resources are not only the people; resources are also
the:
• Technology / tools needed to enable people to execute tasks
• Budget required to fund the project
• Locations and specialized equipment
• Resource management also demands a close inspection of schedules and
timelines. It is important to bring all of these elements together with the
goals of the business.
• It is easy to see the importance of resource management by understanding the
disadvantage of not having it. Without the right data, resource managers have little
control over their projects and no way of understanding:

• Planning and scheduling – Understanding what resources are available and when
• Available and required skills – Assessing the skills of each person and whether additional
skills (or people) need to be added
• Resource utilization – Knowing where people are already committed and if those
allocations are appropriate
• Resource capacity – Understanding true capacity to do work, recognizing that not all time
can be utilized
• Resource prioritization and allocation – Identifying those prioritized initiatives that the
most attention and possibly specialized skills
• Resource management ensures resource managers have on-demand, real-time visibility
into people and other resources so they can have greater control over delivery.
• Efficiency and Optimization:
• Implement strategies to maximize the efficient use of resources.
• Reduce wastage and improve overall system performance.
• Utilize techniques such as load balancing, caching, compression, and parallel processing.
• Organize resources effectively to streamline operations and enhance efficiency.
• Flexibility and Adaptability:
• Design systems to be flexible and dynamic to accommodate changing resource needs.
• Employ dynamic resource management methods that adjust to current demands and
resource availability.
• Automate tasks, orchestrate processes, and dynamically provision resources based on
workload fluctuations.
• Adapt to seasonal variations, peak loads, or unexpected events without compromising
performance.
• Monitoring and Analytics:
• Implement real-time monitoring of resource usage and performance metrics.
• Collect data on CPU usage, memory utilization, storage, network traffic, and other key
indicators.
• Analyze data to identify bottlenecks, trends, and areas for optimization.
• Optimize resource allocation based on insights gathered from monitoring and analytics.
• Resilience and Redundancy:
• Incorporate measures to ensure system resilience and redundancy.
• Implement redundant hardware, network configurations, and failover mechanisms to
minimize downtime.
• Develop backup processes and data recovery plans to safeguard against hardware
failures or disruptions.
• Maintain service accessibility and data integrity even in the event of a failure.
• Key Principles of Resource Management:
• Below are some key principles of Resource Management:

• Planning and Forecasting:

• Analyze historical data to understand past resource utilization patterns.
• Forecast future demands based on business objectives, growth projections, and seasonal
variations.
• Ensure precise prediction of resource needs to avoid overprovisioning or underprovisioning.
• Optimize resource allocation by aligning with projected demand.
• Prioritization:
• Identify critical resources necessary for optimal system performance.
• Allocate resources based on the criticality of tasks or processes.
• Give preference to tasks that directly impact system operation or user experience.
• Ensure that critical resources are always available when needed.
• Security:
• Integrate security measures into resource management policies.
• Ensure compliance with regulatory requirements and industry standards.
• Implement access controls, encryption, authentication mechanisms, and auditing
capabilities to protect resources.
• Safeguard against data breaches, unauthorized access, and internal or external threats
to ensure the security and integrity of resources
• Types of Resources in System Design
• Below are the types of resources in System Design:

• 1. Computational Resources
• These resources include the central processing unit (CPU) and other processing units, such as
graphics processing units (GPUs). The computational power is what takes the command and the
process instructions and carries out all the desired calculations at the machine’s back end.

• 2. Memory Resources
• Memory resources like RAM (Random Access Memory), cache and virtual memory use temporary
storage space to hold the facts and instructions of programs that are being processed by the
main CPU. The memory resources are the most important factor in the system's performance and
responsiveness.

• 3. Storage Resources
• Storage resources refer to different storage device options, such as hard disk drives (HHD), solid
state drives (SSD), and network-attached storage (NAS). These resources rely on persistent data
storage platforms like files, databases, and system configuration.
• . Network Resources
• Network resources comprise network interfaces, routers, switches, and other networking devices
that are utilized to create communication between different components of a system or between
multiple systems. Information assets can be transferred and shared among team members
which greatly helps the complicated distributed technology system.

• 5. I/O Resources
• Input, and output (I/O) resources, perform an important function by enabling every interaction
the system has with peripheral devices such as keyboards, mice, displays, printers, and sensors.
I/O resources are meant for transmitting data between the system and external peripherals.

• 6. Power Resources
• Power resources is a generic term for the overhead cables and sub-stations that provide
electricity to the various equipment, devices, and buildings. Supplying with a trustworthy and
constant electricity stream is as essential to the system as it is for preventing unplanned data
loss or equipment damage.
• 7. Human Resources
• Human resources are the people who are involved in the design, development,
deployment, operation and maintenance of the system. Human resources are in a lot of
ways behind the creation of the system through job positions such as requirements
analysis, software development, system administration and user support.

• 8. Software Resources
• Overall software resources are a combination of the various software parts and programs
that are made to process on the system, like operating systems, middleware programs,
databases, web servers, and custom software development. Managing software
resources is the process of installing, configuring, monitoring and updating software.
• Importance of Resource Management:
• Below are the importance of Resource Management-

• Optimal Resource Utilization:

• Efficiently using CPU cycles, memory, storage, and network bandwidth.
• Avoiding both underutilization and overutilization to prevent performance degradation or
system failures.
• Scalability:
• Ensuring systems can grow and handle increased demands without sacrificing performance.
• Dynamic resource allocation to manage growth effectively without compromising
performance or incurring excessive costs.
• Cost Efficiency:
• Minimizing waste and non-essential expenses in system operations and maintenance.
• Precisely determining resource needs to avoid wasted hardware and software licenses.
• Reliability and Stability:
• Monitoring resource usage and performance metrics to proactively identify issues.
• Improving system availability and user experience through efficient resource
management.
• Quality of Service (QoS):
• Delivering consistent and predictable performance to users.
• Prioritizing critical tasks or services to meet service level agreements (SLAs) and
maintain customer satisfaction.
• Compliance and Security:
• Enforcing access control, data encryption, and audit policies to comply with regulations
and safety standards.
• Identifying and addressing security risks or compliance violations through resource
consumption and access pattern observation.
• What is software reuse?
• Software reuse is a term used for developing the software by using the existing software
components. Some of the components that can be reuse are as follows;
• Source code
• Design and interfaces
• User manuals
• Software Documentation
• Software requirement specifications and many more.
• A resource in software development refers to any reusable component, service, or data
that can be accessed, manipulated, and utilized by an application or program. Resources
can include files, images, fonts, databases, web services, and other digital assets. These
resources are typically external to the source code and can be managed separately from
the application itself.
• Reusable Software Resources

• Component-based software engineering (CBSE) emphasizes reusability—that is, the

• creation and reuse of software building blocks. Such building blocks, often called
• components, must be cataloged for easy reference, standardized for easy application,
• and validated for easy integration. It suggests four software
• resource categories that should be considered as planning proceeds:
• Off-the-shelf components. Existing software that can be acquired from a third
• party or from a past project. COTS (commercial off-the-shelf) components are pur
• chased from a third party, are ready for use on the current project, and have been
• fully validated.
• Full-experience components. Existing specifications, designs, code, or test data
developed for past projects that are similar to the software to be built for the current
project. Members of the current software team have had full experience in the application
area represented by these components.
• Partial-experience components. Existing specifications, designs, code, or test data
• developed for past projects that are related to the software to be built for the cur
• rent project but will require substantial modification. Members of the current soft
• ware team have only limited experience in the application area represented by
• these components. Therefore, modifications required for partial-experience com
• ponents have a fair degree of risk.

• New components. Software components must be built by the software team

• specifically for the needs of the current project
• What are the advantages of software reuse?

• Less effort: Software reuse requires less effort because many components use in the
system are ready made components.
• Time-saving: Re-using the ready made components is time saving for the software team.
• Reduce cost: Less effort, and time saving leads to the overall cost reduction.
• Increase software productivity: when you are provided with ready made components,
then you can focus on the new components that are not available just like ready made
components.
• Utilize fewer resources: Software reuse save many sources just like effort, time, money
etc.
• Leads to a better quality software: Software reuse save our time and we can consume
our more time on maintaining software quality and assurance.
• What are stages of reuse-oriented software engineering?

• Requirement specification:
• First of all, specify the requirements. This will help to decide that we have some existing
software components for the development of software or not.

• Component analysis
• Helps to decide that which component can be reused where.

• Requirement updations / modifications.

• If the requirements are changed by the customer, then still existing components are
helpful for reuse or not.
• Reuse System design
• If the requirements are changed by the customer, then still existing system designs are
helpful for reuse or not.

• Development
• Existing components are matching with new software or not.

• Integration
• Can we integrate the new systems with existing components?

• System validation
• To validate the system that it can be accepted by the customer or not.
• Software reuse success factors

• Capturing Domain Variations

• Easing Integration
• Understanding Design Context
• Effective Teamwork
• Managing Domain Complexity
• Environmental Resources
• The environment that supports a software project, often called the software
engineering environment (SEE), incorporates hardware and software.
• A platform that supports the tools (software) required to produce the work
products that are an outcome of good software engineering practice. Because most
software organizations have multiple constituencies that require access to the SEE,
you must prescribe the time window required for hardware and software and verify
that these resources will be available.
• When a computer-based system (incorporating specialized hardware and software)
is to be engineered, the software team may require access to hardware elements
being developed by other engineering teams. For example, software for a robotic
device used within a manufacturing cell may require a specific robot (e.g., a robotic
welder) as part of the validation test step; a software project for advanced page
layout may need a high-speed digital printing system at some point during
development. Each hardware element must be specified as part of planning
• Project Estimation in Software Engineering:
• Project estimation in software engineering is a critical process that involves
predicting the effort, time, cost, and resources required to complete a software
project. Accurate estimation is essential for effective project planning, management,
and execution, ensuring that projects are completed on time and within budget.
• Key Principles of Project Estimation
• Financial Planning: Estimation helps in planning the financial aspects of the project,
avoiding financial shortfalls.
• Resource Planning: It ensures that necessary resources are identified and allocated
accordingly.
• Timeline Creation: Facilitates the development of realistic timelines and milestones.
• Risk Identification: Helps to identify potential risks associated with project
execution.
• Detailed Planning: Ensures all aspects of the project are considered for execution.
• Quality Assurance: Helps in planning quality assurance activities to meet required
• Software Project Estimation: The First & Foremost Step To Success:
• In short, project estimation is a complex process that revolved around predicting the time, cost,
and scope that a project requires to be deemed finished.
• But in terms of software development or software engineering, it also takes the experience of the
software outsourcing company, the technique they have to utilize, the process they need to follow
in order to finish the project (Software Development Life Cycle).
• Project Estimation requires the use of complex tools & good mathematical as well as knowledge
about planning.

• When estimating a software project, consider the following key elements:

• Cost: Determine the financial resources needed to complete the project.
• Time: Estimate the overall project duration and individual task timelines.
• Scope: Define the project’s boundaries and deliverables.
• Risk: Identify potential risks and develop mitigation strategies.
• Resources: Assess the required human, technological, and financial resources.
• Quality: Determine the desired level of quality and standards to be met.
• 1. Cost
While managing software project, cost is one of the three primary constraints. The
project will fail if you do not have sufficient funds to complete it. You can help set client
expectations and ensure you have enough money to complete the work if you can
accurately estimate project costs early on. Estimating software development costs entails
determining how much money you’ll need and when you’ll need it.
• 2. Time
• Another of the project’s three main constraints is the lack of time. It is critical for
project planning to be able to estimate both the overall project duration and the timing
of individual tasks
You can plan for people and resources to be available when you need them if you
estimate your project schedule ahead of time. It also enables you to manage client
expectations for key deliverables.
• 3. Size or Scope
• The third major project constraint is scope. The project scope refers to all of the tasks
that must be completed in order to complete the project or deliver a product. You can
ensure that you have the right materials and expertise on the project by estimating how
much work is involved and exactly what tasks must be completed.

• 4. Risk
• Any unforeseen event that could positively or negatively impact your project is referred
to as project risk. Estimating risk entails predicting what events will occur during the
project’s life cycle and how serious they will be.
• You can better plan for potential issues and create risk management plans if you
estimate what risks could affect your project and how they will affect it.
• 5. Resources
• The assets you’ll need to complete the project are known as project resources. Tools, people,
materials, subcontractors, software, and other resources are all examples of resources. Resource
management ensures that you have all of the resources you require and make the best use of
them.
• It’s challenging to plan how you’ll manage resources without knowing what you’ll need and when.
This can result in people sitting around doing nothing or materials arriving weeks after you need
them.

• 6. Quality
• Quality is concerned with the completion of project deliverables. Products that must adhere to
stringent quality standards, such as environmental regulations, may require more money, time,
and other resources than those with lower standards.
• Estimating the level of quality required by the customer aids in the planning and estimating the
remaining five aspects of your project. Because all six project factors are interconnected,
forecasts for one can have an impact on forecasts for the other five.
• As a result, applying the same software project estimation techniques to all six areas can help you
improve your accuracy.
• Decomposition Techniques:

• Software project estimation is a form of problem solving, and in most

cases, the problem to be solved (i.e., developing a cost and effort estimate
for a software project) is too complex to be considered in one piece.
• For this reason, we decompose the problem, recharacterizing it as a set of
smaller (and hopefully, more manageable) problems.

• The decomposition approach was discussed from two different points of

view: decomposition of the problem and decomposition of the process.
• Estimation uses one or both forms of partitioning. But before an estimate
can be made, the project planner must understand the scope of the
software to be built and generate an estimate of its “size.”
Decomposition Techniques:

Software engineering deals with complex systems, and managing that complexity is
crucial for successful project delivery. Decomposition techniques are a cornerstone of this
approach, offering a structured way to break down large software projects into smaller,
more manageable pieces.
Benefits of Decomposition
Decomposing a large project into smaller components offers several advantages:
Improved Manageability: Smaller, well-defined modules are easier to understand,
develop, test, and maintain.
Enhanced Focus: Developers can concentrate on specific functionalities without getting
overwhelmed by the entire system.
Reduced Risk: Issues are easier to isolate and fix when confined to smaller modules.
Promotes Parallel Development: Different teams can work on independent modules
concurrently, accelerating development.
Better Estimation: Decomposition facilitates more accurate effort and cost estimation
for individual modules, leading to more realistic project timelines and budgets.
• Approaches to Decomposition:

• There are several ways to decompose a software project, each with its own
strengths:

• Functional Decomposition: This approach breaks down the system

based on its functionalities. The system is divided into modules, each
responsible for a specific set of functionalities. This aligns well with user
needs and is easy to understand.
• Object-Oriented Decomposition: In object-oriented programming
(OOP), the system is decomposed into objects that represent real-world
entities and their interactions. This approach promotes modularity,
reusability, and easier maintenance.
•.
• Layered Decomposition: Here, the system is divided into layers,
each with a well-defined role. For example, a typical layered
architecture might have a presentation layer, a business logic layer,
and a data access layer. This promotes separation of concerns and
simplifies integration with external systems.
• Package-Based Decomposition: In some programming languages,
functionalities are grouped into packages or libraries. This approach
fosters code organization and reusability.
• The choice of decomposition technique depends on the specific
project requirements, programming language, and development
methodology
• Software Sizing:

• The accuracy of a software project estimate is predicated on a number of

things:
• (1)the degree to which the planner has properly estimated the size of the
product to be built;
• (2) the ability to translate the size estimate into human effort, calendar time,
and dollars (a function of the availability of reliable software metrics from past
projects);
• (3) the degree to which the project plan reflects the abilities of the software
team; and
• (4) the stability of product requirements and the environment that supports
the software engineering effort.
• Because a project estimate is only as good as the estimate of the size of the
work to be accomplished, sizing represents the project planner’s first major
challenge. In the context of project planning, size refers to a quantifiable
outcome of the software project.
• If a direct approach is taken, size can be measured in LOC(lines of code). If
an indirect approach is chosen, size is represented as FP(function point).

• “Fuzzy logic” sizing.

• This approach uses the approximate reasoning techniques that are the
cornerstone of fuzzy logic. To apply this approach, the planner must identify
the type of application, establish its magnitude on a qualitative scale, and
then refine the magnitude within the original range. Although personal
experience can be used, the planner should also have access to a historical
database of projects so that estimates can be compared to actual experience.
• Function point sizing. The planner develops estimates of the information domain
characteristics.

• Standard component sizing. Software is composed of a number of different

“standard components” that are generic to a particular application area. For
example, the standard components for an information system are subsystems,
modules, screens, reports, interactive programs, batch programs, files, LOC,
and object-level instructions. The project planner estimates the number of
occurrences of each standard component and then uses historical project data
to determine the delivered size per standard component.
• Change sizing. This approach is used when a project encompasses the use of
existing software that must be modified in some way as part of a project. The
planner estimates the number and type (e.g., reuse, adding code, changing
code, deleting code) of modifications that must be accomplished. Using an
“effort ratio” for each type of change, the size of the change may be estimated
• Problem-Based Estimation:

• Problem-Based Estimation is a process of estimating software development

effort.
• The process involves the following steps:
• Start with a bounded statement of scope.
• Decompose the software into problem functions that can each be estimated
individually.
• Compute an LOC or FP value for each function.
• Derive cost or effort estimates by applying the LOC or FP values to your
baseline productivity metrics (e.g., LOC/person- month or FP/person-
month).
• Combine those estimates and produce an overall estimate.
• LOC-Based Estimation
• Lines of Code (LOC) estimation is a technique used in software engineering to
estimate the effort and resources required to develop a software project. It
involves counting the number of lines of code written in the source code and using
this value to predict development time, cost, and staffing needs.
• The Allure of LOC
• LOC-based estimation holds a certain appeal for its simplicity. Counting lines of
code is a straightforward process, and historical data from similar projects can be
used to establish a baseline for effort per line of code. This seemingly objective
measure can be used for:
• High-Level Planning: LOC estimates can provide a starting point for project
planning, allowing for rough calculations of resources and timelines.
• Benchmarking: By comparing LOC across iterations of the same project,
developers can gauge the codebase’s complexity and identify areas for potential
optimization.
• Productivity Comparisons: LOC can be used for high-level comparisons of
programmer productivity between projects or teams, although it’s important to
consider other factors that might influence coding speed.

The Pitfalls of Lines

Despite its apparent ease, LOC-based estimation has significant limitations:

Focus on Quantity, Not Quality: LOC only considers the raw volume of code,
not its complexity or efficiency. A well-written program with fewer lines might
require more effort than a poorly written one with more lines.
Language Dependency: LOC estimates are heavily influenced by the
programming language used. Languages with verbose syntax will naturally have
higher LOC compared to more concise languages, even for projects of similar
functionality.
• Disregards Non-Coding Efforts: Software development involves tasks
beyond writing code, such as design, testing, documentation, and
maintenance. LOC estimation fails to account for these crucial aspects.
• Project Specificity: Historical data from past projects might not be
directly applicable to a new project with different features and
complexities.
• Mitigating the Risks
• While LOC shouldn’t be the sole factor for estimation, it can be a useful
data point when used cautiously:

• Combine with Other Methods: LOC estimation should be combined

with other techniques like function point analysis that focus on the
system’s functionality rather than just code volume.
• Consider Complexity: Apply factors to adjust the LOC estimate based
on the project’s anticipated complexity. More intricate features might
require a higher effort per line of code.
• Focus on Trends: Use LOC trends over multiple projects developed by
the same team to gauge relative effort rather than absolute values.
• Functional Point (FP) Analysis – Software Engineering

• Functional Point Analysis (FPA) is a software measurement technique used to assess the
size and complexity of a software system based on its functionality. It involves
categorizing the functions of the software, such as input screens, output reports,
inquiries, files, and interfaces, and assigning weights to each based on their complexity.
By quantifying these functions and their associated weights, FPA provides an objective
measure of the software’s size and complexity.
• What is Functional Point Analysis?
• Functional Point Analysis gives a dimensionless number defined in function points which we
have found to be an effective relative measure of function value delivered to our customer.
• A systematic approach to measuring the different functionalities of a software application is
offered by function point metrics. Function point metrics evaluate functionality from the
perspective of the user, that is, based on the requests and responses they receive.

• Objectives of Functional Point Analysis:

• Encourage Approximation: FPA helps in the estimation of the work, time, and materials
needed to develop a software project. Organizations can plan and manage projects more
accurately when a common measure of functionality is available.
• To assist with project management: Project managers can monitor and manage software
development projects with the help of FPA. Managers can evaluate productivity, monitor
progress, and make well-informed decisions about resource allocation and project
timeframes by measuring the software’s functional points.
• Comparative analysis: By enabling benchmarking, it gives businesses the ability to
assess how their software projects measure up to industry standards or best practices
in terms of size and complexity. This can be useful for determining where improvements
might be made and for evaluating how well development procedures are working.
• Improve Your Cost-Benefit Analysis: It offers a foundation for assessing the value
provided by the program concerning its size and complexity, which helps with cost-
benefit analysis. Making educated judgements about project investments and resource
allocations can benefit from having access to this information.
• Comply with Business Objectives: It assists in coordinating software development
activities with an organization’s business objectives. It guarantees that software
development efforts are directed toward providing value to end users by concentrating
on user-oriented functionality.
• Types of Functional Point Analysis
• There are two types of Functional Point Analysis:
• Transactional Functional Type
• External Input (EI): EI processes data or control information that comes from outside the
application’s boundary. The EI is an elementary process.
• External Output (EO): EO is an elementary process that generates data or control
information sent outside the application’s boundary.
• External Inquiries (EQ): EQ is an elementary process made up of an input-output
combination that results in data retrieval.

• Data Functional Type

• Internal Logical File (ILF): A user-identifiable group of logically related data or control
information maintained within the boundary of the application.
• External Interface File (EIF): A group of users recognizable logically related data allusion
to the software but maintained within the boundary of another software.
• Benefits of Functional Point Analysis
• Following are the benefits of Functional Point Analysis:

• Technological Independence: It calculates a software system’s functional size

independent of the underlying technology or programming language used to implement
it. As a result, it is a technology-neutral metric that makes it easier to compare projects
created with various technologies.
• Better Accurate Project Estimation: It helps to improve project estimation accuracy by
measuring user interactions and functional needs. Project managers can improve
planning and budgeting by using the results of the FPA to estimate the time, effort and
resources required for development.
• Improved Interaction: It provides a common language for business analysts, developers,
and project managers to communicate with one another and with other stakeholders.
By communicating the size and complexity of software in a way that both technical and
non-technical audiences can easily understand this helps close the communication gap.
• Making Well-Informed Decisions: FPA assists in making well-informed decisions at every
stage of the software development life cycle. Based on the functional requirements,
organizations can use the results of the FPA to make decisions about resource
allocation, project prioritization, and technology selection.
• Early Recognition of Changes in Scope: Early detection of changes in project scope is
made easier with the help of FPA. Better scope change management is made possible
by the measurement of functional requirements, which makes it possible to evaluate
additions or changes for their effect on the project’s overall size.
• Object point based estimation:
• Object point analysis is a software size estimation technique, used in models like
COCOMO II, that measures the size of a software application from a component
perspective, counting screens, reports, and modules, and assigning weights based on
complexity to estimate effort.
• Here's a more detailed explanation:

• What are Object Points?

• Object points are a way to estimate the size of software projects, similar to Function
Points or Source Lines of Code (SLOC), but with a focus on the components that make
up the application.

• How it Works:
• Component-Based: Object point analysis focuses on the components of the application,
• Complexity Weighting: Each component is assessed for its complexity, and weights are
assigned based on that complexity.
• Total Object Point Count: The total number of object points is calculated by summing
the weighted object points for each component.
• Effort Estimation: The total object point count is then used to estimate the effort
required to develop the application.

• Benefits:
• Independent of Technology: Object point analysis is independent of the programming
language, development methodology, or technology used to develop the application.
• Focus on Functionality: It focuses on the functionality provided by the application, rather
than the code itself.
• Early Estimation: It can be used early in the software development lifecycle to estimate
effort and cost.
• Process-Based Estimation:
• In software engineering, process-based estimation involves breaking down a
project into key processes and estimating the effort required for each,
ultimately leading to cost and schedule estimations.
• Here's a more detailed explanation:
• Key Steps in Process-Based Estimation:
• Identify Project Processes:
• Determine the core activities or processes involved in the software
development lifecycle, such as requirements analysis, design, coding, testing,
and deployment.
• Estimate Effort for Each Process:
• Estimate the time, resources, and effort required for each identified process.
• Determine Resources Needed:
• Identify the resources (personnel, tools, etc.) required for each process.
• Estimate Cost of Each Process:
• Calculate the cost associated with each process based on effort and
resource requirements.
• Summarize the Estimate:
• Combine the estimates for all processes to arrive at a total project cost,
effort, and schedule.
• Example:
• Imagine a software project to develop a new e-commerce website. Process-based
estimation might involve the following:
• Processes: Requirements gathering, UI/UX design, front-end development, back-end
development, database design, testing, and deployment.
• Effort: Estimate the time (e.g., person-days) required for each process.
• Resources: Determine the types of developers, designers, testers, etc., needed for each
process.
• Cost: Calculate the cost of each process based on effort and resource costs.
• Total: Sum up the costs and effort for all processes to get the total project cost and
effort.
• Benefits of Process-Based Estimation:
• Simplicity:
• It's a relatively straightforward approach, making it easy to understand and implement.
• Focus on Activities:
• It emphasizes the activities required to complete the project, leading to a more realistic
estimate.
• Flexibility:
• It can be adapted to different project types and development methodologies.
• Transparency:
• The breakdown of the project into processes makes it easier to track progress and
identify potential issues.
• Estimation with use cases:
• Use Case Points (UCP) is a method to estimate the size and effort of a software project
based on use cases, considering factors like complexity and environmental/technical
conditions.
• Here's a more detailed breakdown:
• What are Use Cases?
• Use cases describe how users interact with a system to achieve specific goals.
• They outline the flow of user inputs and system responses, including both successful
and unsuccessful paths.
• They are a key tool for understanding system requirements and functionality.
• How Use Case Points (UCP) Work:
• Identify Use Cases:
• The first step is to identify and document the use cases for the software system.

• Analyze Complexity:
• Each use case is analyzed for its complexity, considering factors like the number of
steps, actors involved, and the complexity of the scenarios.

• Assign Weights:
• Use cases are assigned weights based on their complexity, and actors are also
classified and weighted.
• Adjust for Environmental and Technical Factors:
• The unadjusted use case points are then adjusted to account for environmental
and technical factors, such as the complexity of the development environment,
the skills of the development team, and the technical challenges of the project.

• Calculate UCP:
• The final UCP value is calculated by combining the weighted use cases, actors,
and adjustment factors.

• Estimate Effort:
• UCPs can be used to estimate the effort required to develop the software, often
expressed in person-months or person-days. onsidering factors like the number of
steps, actors involved, and the complexity of the scenarios.
• Benefits of Using UCP:
• Early Estimation:
• UCP can be used early in the project lifecycle, even before detailed design and coding
have started.
• Focus on Functionality:
• UCP focuses on the functionality of the software, which can help to ensure that the
project is meeting the needs of the users.
• Improved Communication:
• Using use cases and UCP can help to improve communication between developers,
testers, and stakeholders.
• Better Planning:
• UCP can help to improve project planning and resource allocation.
• Use case-based estimation :
• Use case-based estimation in software engineering uses use cases, which represent
scenarios of how a system interacts with actors, to estimate project effort and size,
focusing on functionality and complexity.
• Here's a more detailed explanation:
• What are Use Cases?
• A use case describes a specific interaction between a user (or actor) and a system to
achieve a particular goal.
• It outlines the steps involved in that interaction, focusing on what the system should do,
not how.
• Use cases are a key part of the Unified Modeling Language (UML) and Rational Unified
Process (RUP) methodologies.
• How is it used for Estimation?
• Identifying Use Cases:
• The process begins by identifying all the use cases that the software
system will need to support.
• Analyzing Complexity:
• Each use case is then analyzed to determine its complexity, considering
factors like:
• Number of Steps: The number of actions or steps within the use case.
• Number of Actors: The number of actors involved in the use case.
• Technical Complexity: Technical factors like the database, network, and
other technologies used.
• Environmental Complexity: Factors related to the development team,
processes, and environment.
• Assigning Weights:
• Use cases and actors are assigned weights based on their complexity (e.g., simple,
average, complex).
• Calculating Use Case Points (UCP):
• The UCP method, developed by Gustav Karner, uses a formula to calculate the size of
the software based on the use case points.
• Estimating Effort:
• UCPs can be used to estimate the effort required to develop the software, often
expressed in person-months or man-hours.
• Assigning Weights:
• Use cases and actors are assigned weights based on their complexity (e.g., simple,
average, complex).
• Calculating Use Case Points (UCP):
• The UCP method, developed by Gustav Karner, uses a formula to calculate the size of
the software based on the use case points.
• Estimating Effort:
• UCPs can be used to estimate the effort required to develop the software, often
expressed in person-months or man-hours.
• Benefits of Use Case-Based Estimation:
• Focus on Functionality:
• It helps developers and stakeholders understand the system's functionality and
requirements from a user perspective.
• Early Risk Identification:
• Identifying use cases and their complexity helps to identify potential risks and
challenges early in the development process.
• Improved Communication:
• Use cases are easily understood by both technical and non-technical stakeholders,
facilitating better communication and collaboration.
• More Accurate Estimates:
• By considering the complexity of the use cases, this method can lead to more accurate
estimates of effort and time required for development.
• Reconciling estimations :
• Reconciling estimations in software engineering involves aligning different estimation
methods and perspectives to arrive at a single, realistic estimate of project effort, time,
and cost. This process is crucial for effective project planning and resource allocation.
• Here's a breakdown of the process:
• Why Reconcile Estimates?
• Multiple Perspectives:
• Different estimation techniques (e.g., bottom-up, top-down, analogy-based) can yield
varying results.
• Uncertainty:
• Software projects inherently involve uncertainty, and different estimators may have
varying levels of confidence.
• Stakeholder Alignment:
• Reconciling estimates helps ensure that all stakeholders (developers, project managers,
clients) are on the same page regarding project expectations.
• Methods for Reconciling Estimates:
• Identify and Analyze Divergences: Compare estimates from different sources and identify areas of
significant disagreement.
• Investigate Reasons for Differences: Explore the underlying assumptions, methodologies, and data
used in each estimation technique.
• Utilize Multiple Estimation Techniques: Employ a combination of estimation methods to gain a more
comprehensive understanding of the project.
• Bottom-Up vs. Top-Down: Compare the estimates from the bottom-up (detailed task estimation) and
top-down (project-level estimation) approaches.
• Three-Point Estimation: Use optimistic, most likely, and pessimistic estimates to create a range of
potential outcomes.
• Delphi Technique: Use a group of experts to iteratively refine estimates, seeking consensus.
• Peer Review: Have other team members review and provide feedback on the estimates.
• Iterative Refinement: Continuously refine estimates as the project progresses and more information
becomes available.
• Risk Assessment: Identify and assess potential risks that could impact the project timeline and budget.
• Use Historical Data: Analyze data from previous similar projects to inform current estimates.
• Tools and Techniques:
• Software Estimation Tools:
• Utilize software tools that can help with estimation, tracking, and reporting.
• Project Management Software:
• Use project management software to manage tasks, track progress, and monitor
estimates.
• Spreadsheets:
• Use spreadsheets to organize and analyze data from different estimation sources.
• Benefits of Reconciling Estimates:
• More Realistic Estimates:
• Reconciled estimates are more likely to be accurate and reflect the true complexity of the
project.
• Improved Project Planning:
• Accurate estimates enable better project planning, resource allocation, and scheduling.
• Reduced Risk:
• By identifying and addressing potential issues early on, reconciliation can reduce the risk of
project delays, cost overruns, and scope creep.
• Enhanced Stakeholder Communication:
• Reconciled estimates provide a clear and consistent view of the project's scope, timeline,
and budget, improving communication among stakeholders.
• Increased Project Success:
• By improving the accuracy and reliability of estimates, reconciliation contributes to the
overall success of software development projects.
• Empirical Estimation Models:
• Empirical estimation models in software engineering use data from past projects and
experience to predict future project effort, cost, and schedule, employing formulas and
statistical analysis to estimate these parameters.
• Here's a more detailed explanation:
• What are Empirical Estimation Models?
• Based on Past Data:
• These models rely on historical data from similar projects to identify patterns and
relationships between project characteristics (like size, complexity) and outcomes (like
effort, cost, schedule).
• Formulas and Statistical Analysis:
• They use mathematical formulas and statistical techniques to model these
relationships, allowing for predictions about future projects.
• Key Parameters:
• Effort: The amount of labor required to complete a project, often measured in person-months.
• Cost: The total expenses associated with a project.
• Schedule: The timeline for project completion.
• Size: Measured by LOC, FP, or other metrics.
• Complexity: Factors that influence the difficulty of the project.
• Advantages:
• Objectivity: Based on data rather than subjective opinions.
• Repeatability: Allows for consistent estimation across projects.
• Accuracy: Can provide more accurate estimates than other methods.
• Disadvantages:
• Data Dependency: Requires a good amount of historical data to be effective.
• Model Complexity: Can be complex to implement and maintain.
• Sensitivity to Inputs: The accuracy of the estimates depends on the quality of the input data.
• Structure of Estimation Models
• Software engineering estimation models, like COCOMO, use mathematical formulas and
empirical data to predict effort, cost, and schedule for software projects, often based on
size (e.g., lines of code) and project characteristics.
• Key Elements of Estimation Models:
• Size: The size of the software project, typically measured in lines of code (LOC) or
function points (FP), is a crucial input.
• Effort: The amount of work (e.g., person-months) required to complete the project.
• Cost: The financial resources needed to complete the project.
• Schedule: The estimated time required to complete the project.
• Cost Drivers: Factors that influence the effort and cost, such as project complexity,
technology, and team experience.
• Empirical Data: Models are often based on historical data from similar projects.
• Mathematical Formulas: Models use mathematical equations to predict effort, cost, and
schedule.
• Project Categorization: Some models, like COCOMO, categorize projects based on
complexity and development environment.
• Types of Estimation Models:
• Empirical Estimation: Uses data from previous projects and assumptions to predict
effort.
• Heuristic Estimation: Uses shortcuts and practical methods for quick decisions.
• Analytical Estimation: Breaks down tasks into smaller components for analysis.
• COCOMO II Model:
• COCOMO II (Constructive Cost Model II) is a software engineering method developed by
Barry Boehm and his colleagues, used to estimate the cost, effort, and schedule of
software projects, and it consists of three submodels: application composition, early
design, and post-architecture.

• Here's a more detailed explanation:

• What it is:
• COCOMO II is an updated version of the original COCOMO model, designed to provide
more accurate and detailed cost estimations for software projects.
• Purpose:
• It helps project managers and software engineers estimate the effort, cost, and
schedule required to develop and maintain software projects.
• Submodels:
• Application Composition Model: Used for estimating effort and cost in early prototyping
or when dealing with reusable components.
• Early Design Model: Focuses on estimating effort and cost during the early stages of the
software development lifecycle, when the project requirements are still being defined.
• Post-Architecture Model: Used for estimating effort and cost during the detailed design
and implementation phases of the software development lifecycle.

• Key Features:
• Cost Drivers: COCOMO II considers various factors that influence the cost of software
development, such as project size, complexity, and team experience.
• Effort and Schedule Estimation: It provides equations and models to estimate the effort
(person-months) and schedule (time) required to complete a software project.
• Software Maintenance Cost Estimation: COCOMO II can also be used to estimate the
cost of software maintenance and evolution.
• Benefits:
• Improved Accuracy: COCOMO II provides more accurate cost estimations compared to
the original COCOMO model.
• Better Planning: It helps project managers plan projects more effectively by providing
realistic estimates of effort, cost, and schedule.
• Resource Allocation: It helps in allocating resources effectively by providing insights into
the effort required for different phases of the software development lifecycle.
• Preparation Requirements Traceability Matrix (RTM)
• To prepare a Requirements Traceability Matrix (RTM) in software engineering, you need
to identify all requirements, create a table or spreadsheet, link requirements to test
cases, and regularly update the matrix as requirements or test cases change.
• Here's a more detailed breakdown:

• 1. Define the Scope and Objectives:

• What are you trying to achieve with the RTM? (e.g., compliance verification,
requirement validation, impact analysis)
• What types of traceability do you need? (e.g., forward, backward, bidirectional)
• What artifacts will be included? (e.g., requirements, test cases, defects)
• Gather and Document Requirements:

• Identify all requirements: List all functional, non-functional, and technical

requirements.
• Document requirements: Create a requirements document with unique identifiers
(Requirement ID) and clear descriptions.
• Consider the source of each requirement: (e.g., stakeholder, document,
regulation)
• Assign priorities: Indicate the importance or urgency of each requirement.
• . Create the RTM Table/Spreadsheet:

• Choose your tool: Excel or dedicated software can be used.

• Set up columns:
• Requirement ID
• Requirement Description
• Test Case ID(s)
• Test Case Status (Pass/Fail)
• Defect ID(s)
• Defect Status
• (Optional) Priority, Source, Status (e.g., Open, Closed, Verified)
• Link requirements to test cases: Fill in the matrix by marking the relationships between
requirements and test cases.
• Maintain and Update the RTM:
• Regularly review and update: As requirements or test cases change, update the RTM
accordingly.
• Track the status of requirements and test cases: Use the RTM to monitor progress and
identify potential issues.
• Use the RTM for impact analysis: If a requirement changes, use the RTM to identify
which test cases and other project components are affected.
• Document any deviations: Note any issues or discrepancies that arise during testing
and development.
• Benefits of Using an RTM:
• Improved project quality:
• By ensuring that all requirements are tested and that defects are tracked, RTMs help
improve the overall quality of the software.
• Reduced risks:
• RTMs help identify potential problems early in the development process, allowing for timely
corrective action.
• Better communication:
• RTMs provide a clear and concise overview of the project requirements and their
relationship to test cases and defects.
• Enhanced traceability:
• RTMs make it easy to track the status of requirements and test cases throughout the
development lifecycle.
• Facilitated impact analysis:
• RTMs help assess the impact of changes to requirements on other project components.
Project Scheduling
• In software engineering, project scheduling involves creating a timeline and assigning
resources to tasks, determining start and end dates, estimating effort, and allocating
resources to ensure timely project completion.
• Here's a more detailed explanation:
• Definition:
• Project scheduling is the process of planning and organizing the tasks and activities
required to deliver a software project within a specific timeframe.
• Key Elements:
• Task Breakdown: Decomposing the project into smaller, manageable tasks.
• Timeline Creation: Establishing a schedule with start and end dates for each task.
• Resource Allocation: Assigning the necessary resources (people, tools, etc.) to
each task.
• Dependency Identification: Identifying tasks that depend on others, ensuring a
logical flow.
• Progress Tracking: Monitoring the project's progress against the schedule and
taking corrective actions when necessary.
• Tools and Techniques:
• Gantt Charts: A visual representation of the project schedule, showing tasks,
durations, and dependencies.
• PERT Charts: Similar to Gantt charts, but with more detail, often used for initial
timeline planning.
• Work Breakdown Structure (WBS): A hierarchical decomposition of the project scope into
smaller, manageable tasks.
• Critical Path Method: Identifying the critical path, the sequence of tasks that directly
impact the project's completion time.

• Benefits:
• Improved Time Management: Helps ensure that the project is completed on time.
• Resource Optimization: Allows for efficient allocation of resources.
• Clear Communication: Provides a shared understanding of the project schedule among
team members.
• Better Planning and Control: Facilitates better planning and control of the project's
progress.
• Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
• Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) is a procedure through which activities
of a project are represented in its appropriate sequence and timing. It is a scheduling
technique used to schedule, organize and integrate tasks within a project.

• PERT is basically a mechanism for management planning and control which

provides blueprint for a particular project. All of the primary elements or
events of a project have been finally identified by the PERT.

• In this technique, a PERT Chart is made which represent a schedule for all the specified
tasks in the project. The reporting levels of the tasks or events in the PERT Charts is
some what same as defined in the work breakdown structure (WBS).
• What is PERT Chart?

• A PERT chart is a project management tool used to plan and schedule tasks, illustrating
the sequence and timing of project activities.

• The PERT chart is used to schedule, organize and co-ordinate tasks within the project.
the objective of PERT chart is to determine the critical path, which comprises critical
activities that should be completed on schedule.

• This chart is prepared with the help of information generated in project planning
activities such as estimation of effort, selection of suitable process model for software
development and decomposition of tasks into subtasks.
• What does a PERT Chart Contain?
• Here are the main components of a PERT chart:
• Nodes: it represents the task or milestones. every node represents the task name and may
also show duration of the task.

• Arrows: it indicates the direction or sequence of task and also dependencies between them.
suppose an array from A to B, then task A must be completed before task B.

• Time Estimation: It estimates the time duration to complete the task.

• Critical Path: The critical path is the largest path in project management that always results
in the shortest time to complete the project.

• Milestones: It is Key point in the project timeline that represent significant events or
deadlines.
• Characteristics of PERT

• Some key characteristics of PERT include:

• Decision-making support: It serves as a base for obtaining important facts for
implementing decisions.
• Resource utilization: Helps management decide the best possible resource utilization
method.
• Time network analysis: Takes advantage of time network analysis techniques.
• Reporting structure: Presents a structure for reporting information.
• Critical path identification: Specifies activities that form the critical path.
• Probability of completion: Describes the probability of completing the project before the
specified date.
• Task dependencies: Describes the dependencies of one or more tasks on each other.
• Graphical representation: Represents the project in a graphical plan form
• Advantages of PERT

• PERT offers several advantages:

• Completion time estimation: Provides an estimation of the project's completion time.
• Slack time identification: Supports the identification of activities with slack time.
• Start and end dates: Determines the start and end dates of activities.
• Critical path activities: Helps project managers identify critical path activities.
• Organized representation: Creates well-organized diagrams for representing large
amounts of data
• Disadvantages of PERT

• Despite its advantages, PERT has some disadvantages:

• Complexity: The complexity of PERT can lead to implementation problems.

• Subjective time estimation: Activity time estimations are subjective, which can be a
major disadvantage.
• Maintenance cost: Maintaining PERT is expensive and complex.
• Wrong assumptions: The actual distribution may differ from the PERT beta distribution,
causing wrong assumptions.
• Underestimation: It may underestimate the expected project completion time as other
paths can become critical if related activities are deferred
• Defining a task for a software project :
• In software engineering, defining a task for a project involves breaking down complex
work into smaller, manageable units with clear goals, deliverables, and dependencies,
ensuring efficient project execution and successful software development.
• Here's a more detailed explanation:
• Why Define Tasks?
• Organization and Clarity:
• Breaking down a project into tasks helps create a structured and organized approach,
making it easier to understand, manage, and track progress.
• Resource Allocation:
• Defining tasks allows for better resource allocation, ensuring the right people with the
right skills are assigned to the right tasks.
• Here's a more detailed explanation:

• Definition:
• A task set is a grouping of related tasks, milestones, and deliverables that are necessary
to accomplish a specific part of a software project.

• Purpose:
• Task sets help to organize and structure the work required for a project, making it easier
to plan, track progress, and manage resources.
• Examples:
• Project Planning: A task set for project planning might include tasks like requirements
gathering, creating a project plan, and defining the project scope.

• Elicitation: A task set for elicitation might include tasks like conducting user
interviews, analyzing requirements, and documenting user stories.

• Development: A task set for development might include tasks like coding, testing, and
debugging.

• Deployment: A task set for deployment might include tasks like setting up the
environment, deploying the software, and testing the deployment.
• Relationship to Project Schedule:
• Task sets are typically mapped to a project schedule, which defines the timeline and
resources required for each task set.

• Benefits:
• Improved Organization: Task sets help to break down large projects into smaller, more
manageable chunks.
• Better Planning: By defining task sets, project managers can better plan the work
required for a project.
• Enhanced Tracking: Task sets make it easier to track progress and identify potential
problems.
• Effective Communication: Task sets provide a clear and concise way to communicate
project requirements and expectations to team members.