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CHM 101 Intro, Week 1, By DVC

The document outlines the lecture topics for General Chemistry I (CHM 101) presented by Prof. Clementina D. Igwebike-Ossi, covering fundamental concepts such as atoms, molecules, ions, elements, compounds, and chemical reactions over the first two weeks of lectures. It includes historical perspectives on atomic theory from philosophers like Democritus to modern theories such as Bohr's model and quantum mechanics. Key topics also include atomic structure, sub-atomic particles, isotopy, and relative atomic mass, providing a comprehensive introduction to the subject.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
5 views24 pages

CHM 101 Intro, Week 1, By DVC

The document outlines the lecture topics for General Chemistry I (CHM 101) presented by Prof. Clementina D. Igwebike-Ossi, covering fundamental concepts such as atoms, molecules, ions, elements, compounds, and chemical reactions over the first two weeks of lectures. It includes historical perspectives on atomic theory from philosophers like Democritus to modern theories such as Bohr's model and quantum mechanics. Key topics also include atomic structure, sub-atomic particles, isotopy, and relative atomic mass, providing a comprehensive introduction to the subject.

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© © All Rights Reserved
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1 ( CHM 101) LECTURES

1ST & 2ND WEEK


Presented by
Prof. Clementina D. Igwebike-Ossi,
B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D.,(Nigeria)
FPIN, FCSN, FICCON, MANI, MANA

DEPUTY VICE CHANCELLOR (ACADEMICS) &


DEAN
FACULTY OF NATURAL SCIENCES
GENERAL CHEMISTRY I ( CHM 101)
LECTURE TOPICS OUTLINE
• FIRST WEEK (10th & 12th February 2025)
• Atoms
• Molecules
• Ions
• Elements
• Compounds
• Chemical reactions
• Chemical equations
• Sub-atomic particles & their characteristics
• Mass number
• Atomic number
• Isotopy
GENERAL CHEMISTRY I ( CHM 101)
LECTURE TOPICS OUTLINE

• SECOND WEEK (17th & 19th February 2025)


• Relative atomic mass
• Bohr’s model of the atom
• Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
• The Quantum model of atoms
• Quantum Numbers
– Principal Quantum Number
– Azimuthal ( Secondary) Quantum Number
– Magnetic Quantum Number
– Spin Quantum Number
First week ; 10th & 12th February, 2025
The Concept of the Atom : Brief Historical Background

• ERA OF PHILOSOPHICAL ENQUIRY


• Before the scientific revolution (1543-1687 CE ) which gave rise to
experimental science, philosophers played a dominant role in
shaping people’s understanding of the natural world. They relied
on reasoning, observation and speculation to develop their ideas.
Great thinkers like Aristotle, Archimedes and Eratosthenes laid
the groundwork for scientific revolution.

• The scientific revolution marked a significant shift from


philosophical speculation to empirical observation and
experimentation. Scientists like Francis Bacon, Galileo Galilei and
Isaac Newton developed the scientific method which emphasized
experimentation, observation, and the formulation of laws and
theories. Scientific instruments were also developed.
First week ; 10th & 12th February, 2025
The Concept of the Atom : Brief Historical Background
• Democritus’ Philosophy
• Around 400 B.C, the Greek philosopher, Democritus
introduced the concept of the atom as the smallest
particle of matter.
• He believed that atoms were tiny, hard, solid, uniform,
incompressible and indestructible particles.
• He gave the particle the name ‘atomos’ which means
‘indivisible’ in Greek.
• Democritus’ concept of the atom was a philosophical
one as it was not based on any experimental evidence.
THE ATOM
• Daltons Atomic Theory
• In 1808, John Dalton , an English Chemist revived the atomic nature of
matter.
• He proposed a theory of the atom known as Dalton’s Atomic theory,
which was supported by experimental evidence. (see notebook for
details)
• Dalton’s atomic theory was partially supported by three fundamental
laws of chemistry: i. The law of conservation of mass ii. The law of
definite proportions iii. The law of multiple proportions.

• The Atom is
• the basic building block of chemistry and matter
• The smallest unit into which matter can be divided without the release
of electrically charged particles.
• smallest unit of matter that has the characteristic properties of a
chemical element
MOLECULES AND IONS

• MOLECULES
• A molecule is a collection of two or more atoms that are bonded together
by attractive forces or by chemical bonds.
• A molecule may be made up of similar atoms of the same element or
dissimilar atoms of two or more elements. For example a chlorine molecule
(Cl2) contains two chlorine atoms while a water molecule has two hydrogen
atoms and one oxygen atom bonded together.
• Definition: A molecule is the smallest part of a substance that can exist
independently and still retain the characteristics of that substance.
• IONS
• An ion is an atom or group of atoms that carries a positive or negative
electric charge as a result of having gained or lost one or more electrons.
• There are two types of ions, namely the positively charged ions called the
cations and the negatively charged ions called the anions.
• Cations are formed when an atom loses one or more electrons. Anions are
formed when an atom gains one or more electrons. (see examples in
notebook and textbook)
ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

ELEMENTS
• An element is a chemical substance that cannot be split/ broken down into
other substances by chemical reactions.
• Elements are pure substances made up of only one type of atom. Atoms of the
same element have the same number of protons.
• Elements are divided into four major categories; metals, non-metals, metalloids
and noble gases.
• All the known elements are arranged in the Periodic Table.
COMPOUNDS
• A compound is a substance which contains two or more elements chemically
combined together in a fixed ratio.
• In the formation of a compound, the component elements must undergo
chemical changes such that the new compound formed is a new substance with
entirely different properties from those of its component elements. Example
ethanol ( CH3CH2OH) is a compound made up of three elements - carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen, which have different properties from ethanol( See notebook
for more examples)
CHEMICAL REACTIONS & CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

• Chemical Reactions
• A process that leads to the chemical transformation of one set
of substances to another.
• A process in which reactants are transformed into products.
• Chemical Equations
• A chemical reaction is described by a chemical equation,
which is an expression that gives the identities and quantities
of substances involved in a chemical reaction.
• They are symbolic representations of chemical reactions in
which the reactants and products are expressed in terms of
their respective chemical formulae.
• The reactants are on the left and the products on the right
with both separated by an arrow.
SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

• The atom is made up of three distinct sub-particles namely, the proton,


the neutron and the electron.
• The protons and neutrons are found in the centre or nucleus of the atom.
The electrons revolve around the nucleus in distinct, successive ,
concentric volumes in space known as shells or orbits.
• Protons and neutrons are held together by a force called the binding
force.
• The proton has a positive charge and a mass of 1. The neutron has no
charge and a mass of 1; its mass is therefore equal to the mass of the
neutron. The electron has a negative charge and a negligible mass of
1/ 1870 i.e 0.000549 a.m.u.
• The number of protons in the nucleus is always equal to the number of
orbital electrons , thus the atom is electrically neutral.
• The number of neutrons present in an atom is generally similar to the
number of protons , although in the larger atoms, the number of neutrons
exceeds the no of protons
Size of the Atom

• The size of an atom is very minute. In decimal notation, a gold


atom has a diameter of about 0.00000003cm ( 3.0x 10-8cm).
Compared with atoms of other elements, the gold atom is of
average size.
• If the size of an atom is taken to be the size of the National
Assembly, the nucleus is about the size of a tennis ball.
• Atomic size is measured as the distance between the centre
of the nucleus of an atom and its outermost shell.
• Atoms of different elements vary in size but 10-8cm is
considered as the rough estimate for all atoms.
• Electron microscopes with magnification factors of several
millions have made it possible to view images of atoms.
ATOMIC NUMBER & MASS NUMBER

• Atomic Number
• Atomic Number of an element represents:
• i. the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of the element.
• ii. the number of electrons around the nucleus of a neutral atom of the
element.
• iii. the number assigned to the element in the orderly arrangement of
elements in the Periodic Table.
• Atomic Number = no. of protons = no. of neutrons
• Mass Number
• The mass number of an element is the total sum of protons and neutrons
found in the nucleus of an atom of the element.
• The protons and neutrons in the nucleus are called nucleons.
• Mass number = no. of protons + no. of neutrons
= Atomic no + no. of neutrons
• No. of neutrons = Mass no. – Atomic no.
ISOTOPY
• Isotopy is a phenomenon whereby different atoms of the
same element have the same atomic number (i.e have similar
chemical properties) but different mass numbers.
• The sum total of protons and neutrons in an isotope
constitutes the mass number of that particular isotope while
the number of protons is its atomic number. These numbers
are usually written on the symbols of the isotope as a
superscript and subscript respectively.
• For example chlorine has two isotopes, Cl-35 and Cl-37. Both
have the same number of protons, i.e 17 but different
numbers of neutrons, 18 and 20,
• See more examples of isotopes in notebook.
RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS
• The atom of Carbon-12 has been adopted by modern
chemists as the standard for defining the relative mass of
other elements and given a basic mass value of 12 units. It
replaced H because of its advantages over H which include
stability (atomic mass remains constant), abundance, wide
availability and accessibility, ease of storage and
transportation since it’s a solid.
• The relative atomic mass of an element is the number of
times one atom of that element is heavier than one –twelfth
of one atom of carbon-12.
• The RAM carries no unit since it is a ratio. In recent years,
however, the atomic mass unit (amu) is sometimes used. On
the carbon-12 atomic mass scale scale, carbon-12 isotope is
arbitrarily assigned a mass of exactly 12 amu. 1 amu
therefore equals exactly 1/12th of the mass of C-12 isotope.
RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS

• Carbon-12 has a mass of 1.99268 x 10-23 g


• 12 amu = 1.99268 x 10-23g
• Therefore, 1 amu = 1/12 X mass of 1.99268 x 10-23g
• = 1.66057 x 10-24g
• One oxygen atom has a mass of 16 amu and one H atom has a mass of 1.008
amu
• For an element which exhibits isotopy, the RAM is the arithmetic mean of the
several masses of the various isotopes of the element based on their relative
abundance in nature.
• Example a given quantity of chlorine contains 75% of Cl-35 and 25% of Cl- 37.
Calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine
• RAM = +
• = 26.25 + 9.25 35.5
• =35.5
Bohr’s Model of the Atom
• In 1913, Niels Henrik David Bohr proposed the structural model of the atom in
which he made the following postulates:
• Energy Level Postulate
• The electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus in certain well-defined,
circular orbits or shells situated at various distances from the nucleus.
• The radius of each orbit from the nucleus is specific.
• Each shell of electrons represents a particular energy level. Thus, the electrons
in each orbit have specific energy values.
• Transition Postulate
• The electrons in an atom can jump from one energy level to another. By so
doing, the electron is said to undergo a transition.
• Whenever an electron undergoes a transition, a definite integral amount of
energy called a quantum is absorbed or emitted.
• The electrons in orbits nearer the nucleus possess less energy than those further
away.
• Thus, when an electron in a higher energy level undergoes a transition to a lower
energy level , a quantum of excess energy known as a photon is emitted which is
same as the energy difference between the two levels.
Bohr’s Model of the Atom

• If Ei > Ef, energy is radiated by the atom


• If Ei < Ef , energy is absorbed by the atom
• This energy difference (energy of the photon) is given by the
Planck’s equation as follows:
E= hυ
∆E = En2 – En1
Where h represents Planck’s constant which is 6.63x 10-34 Js
and
υ is the frequency of the radiation
Bohr’s Model of the Atom

• Bohr’s Atomic Model Diagram


• Bohr’s model of the atom can be represented
diagrammatically as follows
• **See diagram in notebook
• n represents the position of the orbital ( shell)
• n = 1,2,3
• r = distance of the orbit from the nucleus or radius of Bohr’s
orbit
• m = mass of the electron
• v = velocity of the electron
The Quantum Model of the Atom

• The most modern theory that explains the structure


of an atom is called Quantum or wave mechanics.
Quantum mechanics is the fundamental theory in
physics that provides a description of the physical
properties of nature at the scale of atoms and
subatomic particles. It is the foundation of Quantum
physics.
• The quantum model of the atom is based on three
principles:
• The dual nature of matter ( Louis De Broglie, 1924)
• The Uncertainty Principle (Werner Heisenberg, 1927)
• Schrodinger wave equation (1926)
The Dual Nature of matter (Louis De Broglie, 1924)

• The Dual Nature of matter (Louis De Broglie, 1924)


• The theory of wave (quantum) mechanics has it that all forms of
matter, including electrons, can have wave-like properties as
well as particle properties. The wave – particle duality of matter
implies that an electron of mass, m moving with a velocity ,v is a
wave motion with a wavelength expressed as
• λ = h/mv
• where λ = wavelength of an electron of mass, m and velocity, v
• h= Planck’s constant
• The use of the electron microscope is one practical application
of the wave-like behaviour of electrons.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

• In 1927, Werner Heisenberg introduced the Uncertainty principle


which shows that it is impossible to measure precisely and
simultaneously both the position and energy of a quantum
mechanical or sub-microscopic object such as an electron .
• When the energy is measured precisely, the position cannot be
determined precisely.
• Therefore, when the energy of an electron in an atom is measured
precisely, its position can only be determined as a probability.
• The picture of the electron as a particle moving in fixed orbits about
the nucleus is thus untenable since this exact fixing of the electron’s
position would give it an energy uncertainty.
• This means that the position of a moving electron cannot be
determined with precision . Thus, we can only talk of the probability
of finding an electron at a given location in an atom.
Schrodinger Wave Equation

• In 1926, Erwin Schrodinger, an Austrian Physicist obtained the


equation for particle waves, known as Schrodinger wave equation, a
linear partial differential equation. Schrodinger wave equation is a
mathematical expression describing the energy and position of the
electron in space and time, taking into account the wave nature of
the electron inside the atom.

• SEE EQUATION IN NOTEBOOK

• ψ (psi) is a wave function that describes a region in space about the
nucleus where an electron is likely to be found. Ψ is called an
atomic orbital.
• Ψ2 is a measure of the probability of finding the electron in a
particular position from the nucleus.
Schrodinger Wave Equation

• The solution of Schrodinger wave equation gives many


values of the wave function, ψ. However, the acceptable
solution describes the energy, position and shape of the
atomic orbitals. Each atomic orbital has a set of three
quantum numbers (n, l,m) which describe the atomic orbital
characteristics, namely energy, position, shape and
orientation of the orbital. This atomic orbital is different
from Bohr’s idea of electron orbit.
QUANTUM NUMBERS
• The study of atomic spectra revealed that four different quantum
numbers are needed to characterize ( describe and define ) the
position of each electron in an atom completely. These are the:
• Principal Quantum number, n
• Azimuthal (secondary or subsidiary) quantum number, l
• Magnetic (or Orientation) Quantum number, m
• Spin Quantum number, s
• Three of the quantum numbers, n,l and m specify the wave function
that gives the probability of finding the electron at various points in
space.A wave function for an electron in an atom is called an atomic
orbital.
• An atomic orbital describes the region (volume) of space where
there is a high probability of finding the electrons. The atomic
orbital has a definite shape. The fourth quantum number, s, refers
to a magnetic property of electrons called spin.

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