FOLDS, FAULTS &

JOINTS,
(AND THEIR
BEARING ON
ENGINEERING
CONSTRUCTION)
FOLDS
• Folds are one of the most common geological structures
found in rocks. When a set of horizontal layers are
subjected to compressive forces, they bend either upward
or downward. The bend noticed in rocks are called folds.
• It is a stack of originally planar surfaces, that are bent or
folded during permanent deformation.

2
USUALLY, FOLDS ARE CLASSIFIED ON THE
BASIS OF:

• Symmetrical Character
• Upward or Downward Bend
• Occurrence of Plunge
• Uniformity of Bed Thickness
• Behavior of the Fold Pattern with Depth.

3
FOLDS CAN BE CLASSIFIED BY THEIR GEOMETRY
WITH RESPECT TO THEIR AXIAL PLANE:

• Symmetrical Folds - axial plane is vertical and beds dip at

approximately the same angle, but in opposite directions, on either
side of the plane.
• Asymmetrical Folds - axial planes are inclined and one limb of
the fold dips more steeply than the opposite limb, but still in
opposite directions.
• Overturned Folds – axial planes are inclined and both limbs of
the fold dip in the same direction.

4
• Recumbent Folds – the axial plane is essentially horizontal with
the limit of variation of axial-planar dip, and the resulting limit of
plunge being 10°.

5
FOUR TYPES OF FOLDS:

• Monocline – is a step-like fold in rock strata consisting of a zone

of steeper dip within an otherwise horizontal or gently-dipping
sequence
• Anticline – is a fold that arches upward. The rocks dip away from
the center of the fold. When a rock arch upward to form a circular
structure, the structure is called dome.
• Syncline – is a fold that bends downward. When rocks bend
downward in a circular structure, it will form a basin.
• Plunging fold – a fold that is tilted downwards in space, parallel to
the fold hinge plane.

6
7
JOINTS

• Joints are cracks or fractures that divide the rock into parts or
blocks and there is no relative displacement .
• They can be formed as a result of tensile or compressive stresses.
• Joints also aid in weathering by providing channels where water air
can reach deep into the formation.

8
TERMINOLOGY
Joint set - joint that share a similar orientation in the same area. Or it is a
family of parallel evenly spaced joints.
Joint system - two or more intersecting joint sets in the same area.
Open joints - which the block have separated for the small distance to right
angle tothe fracture surface.

Close joints - there is no such a separation. Joints may e capable of allowing fluids
and (gas and water) to pass through the rock.

Small joints - small in their extension confined to only one part of layer Its also called
as discontinuous joints.

Master joints- extensive joints referred as a continuous joints the more prominent
continuous joints are called as master joint.

9
10
FORMATION OF JOINTS

- Joints results from brittle fracture of a rock body as a result of tensile

stresses and compression stresses.
- When this happens the rock fractures in a plane parallel to the maximum
principal stress and perpendicular to the minimum principal stress
- Joints are caused in different rocks due to different reasons.

11
Contraction during Formation- Joints can form when rocks undergo cooling
and contraction, particularly in igneous and metamorphic rocks. As the rocks
cool, they contract, leading to the development of fractures or joints.
Expansion during Contraction- Sometimes, joints can form due to
expansion of rocks during periods of tectonic stress. This can occur when
rocks are subjected to high temperatures and pressures, causing them to
expand and fracture.
Crustal Disturbance- Joints can also form as a result of tectonic forces and
crustal movements. Stress and strain within the Earth's crust can lead to the
development of fractures, which subsequently form joints as the rocks
respond to the tectonic forces.

12
 JOINTS ARE CLASSIFIED BASED ON
VARIOUS CRITERIA

1.Based on Geometry:
1. Columnar Joints: These are typically vertical fractures that form in igneous
rocks, often with polygonal shapes resembling columns.
2. Sheet Joints: These are parallel fractures that develop in sedimentary rocks,
usually near the surface, and are often related to exfoliation or weathering
processes.
2.Based on Origin:
1. Thermal Contraction Joints: Formed due to the cooling and contraction of
rocks, commonly found in igneous and metamorphic rocks.
2. Tectonic Joints: Result from tectonic forces and crustal movements, such as
extensional, compressional, or shear stress.
3. Pressure Release Joints: Formed due to the release of confining pressure,
often associated with exhumation of deeply buried rocks.

13
3. Based on Movement:
1. Open Joints: Fractures where there has been no significant movement along the
fracture plane.
2. Closed Joints: Fractures where the opposite sides of the fracture have moved
closer together, resulting in some degree of displacement.
3. Shear Joints: Fractures where there has been lateral movement parallel to the
fracture plane, typically associated with shear stress.

14
OCCURRENCE
• Widespread- Joints occur in various types of rocks and are widespread
in both sedimentary and crystalline rocks.
• Bedding Planes- In sedimentary rocks, joints often form parallel to
bedding planes due to the stresses associated with sediment deposition
and compaction.
• Intrusions- In igneous rocks, joints can form due to the cooling and
contraction of magma bodies.
• Fault Zones- Joints are often found associated with fault zones, where
larger-scale movements have occurred along fractures in the Earth's crust.

15
FAULTS

What is fault?
In geology, a fault is a fracture in the Earth's crust where compressional or
tensional forces cause the rocks on opposite sides of the fracture to move
relative to each other. Faults can be planar or gently curved and vary in
length from a few centimeters to hundreds of kilometers. Displacement
along the fault plane can range from less than a centimeter to several
hundred kilometers. Sometimes, movement is spread across a fault zone
made up of multiple individual faults within a belt hundreds of meters
wide. Faults are distributed unevenly across the Earth's surface, with
some regions having few faults while others are intersected by numerous
faults.

16
IT IS CONSIST OF SEVERAL
KEY PARTS

1. Fault Plane- The fault plane is the surface along which the movement of
rocks has occurred. It can be vertical, horizontal, or inclined, depending on
the orientation of the fault. The fault plane separates the hanging wall from
the footwall.

2. Hanging Wall- The hanging wall is the block of rock located above the
fault plane. It typically moves relative to the footwall during faulting. In a
normal fault, the hanging wall moves downward relative to the footwall, while
in a reverse fault, it moves upward.

3. Footwall- The footwall is the block of rock located below the fault plane. It
remains stationary or moves in the opposite direction of the hanging wall
during
17 faulting. The footwall is named for its position relative to miners, who
would stand on this block of rock while working.
4. Fault Trace- The fault trace is the
intersection of the fault plane with the Earth's
surface. It represents the line where the fault
can be observed at the surface.

5. Fault Scarp- A fault scarp is a small step

or offset on the ground surface where one
side of the fault has moved vertically relative
to the other side. Fault scarps are typically
associated with vertical movement along
normal faults.

6. Fault Zone- The fault zone is the broader

region of fractured rock surrounding the fault
plane. It may exhibit a variety of structures,
such as fault breccia, gouge, and mylonite,
resulting from the movement and deformation
of rocks during faulting.

18
TYPES OF FAULTS

Normal Faults- These occur when the hanging wall (the block above
the fault) moves downward relative to the footwall (the block below
the fault). Normal faults are common in regions undergoing
extensional tectonics, such as divergent plate boundaries.
Reverse Faults (Thrust Faults)- In reverse faults, the hanging wall
moves upward relative to the footwall. These faults are associated
with compressional tectonic forces, typically found in convergent plate
boundary zones where one plate is being pushed up over another.
Strike-Slip Faults- These faults are characterized by horizontal
movement along the fault plane, with minimal vertical displacement.
The movement is parallel to the strike (trend) of the fault. Strike-slip
faults are commonly found in transform plate boundaries, such as the
San Andreas Fault in California.

19
Oblique-Slip Faults- Oblique-slip faults exhibit both horizontal and vertical
movement along the fault plane. The movement can be a combination of
normal and strike-slip or reverse and strike-slip motion.

20
THANK YOU