14

PARTIAL DERIVATIVES
PARTIAL DERIVATIVES

So far, we have dealt with the calculus of

functions of a single variable.

However, in the real world, physical quantities

often depend on two or more variables.
PARTIAL DERIVATIVES

So, in this chapter, we:

 Turn our attention to functions of several

variables.

 Extend the basic ideas of differential calculus

to such functions.
PARTIAL DERIVATIVES

14.1
Functions of
Several Variables
In this section, we will learn about:
Functions of two or more variables
and how to produce their graphs.
FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES

The volume V of a circular cylinder

depends on its radius r and its height h.

 In fact, we know that V = πr2h.

 We say that V is a function of r and h.

 We write V(r, h) = πr2h.

FUNCTION OF TWO VARIABLES

A function f of two variables is a rule that

assigns to each ordered pair of real numbers
(x, y) in a set D a unique real number denoted
by f(x, y).

 The set D is the domain of f.

 Its range is the set of values that f takes on,
that is,
{f(x, y) | (x, y) Є D}
FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES

We often write z = f(x, y) to make explicit the

value taken on by f at the general point (x, y).

 The variables x and y are independent variables.

 z is the dependent variable.

 Compare this with the notation y = f(x)

for functions of a single variable.
FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES

A function of two variables is just

a function whose:

 Domain is a subset of 2
 Range is a subset of 
FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES

One way of visualizing such a function is

by means of an arrow diagram, where
the domain D is represented as a subset
of the xy-plane.
FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES

If a function f is given by a formula and

no domain is specified, then the domain of f
is understood to be:

 The set of all pairs (x, y) for which the given

expression is a well-defined real number.
FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES Example 1

For each of the following functions,

evaluate f(3, 2) and find the domain.

x  y 1
a. f ( x, y ) 
x 1
2
b. f ( x, y )  x ln( y  x )
FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES Example 1 a

3  2 1 6
f (3, 2)  
3 1 2
 The expression for f makes sense if
the denominator is not 0 and the quantity
under the square root sign is nonnegative.

 So, the domain of f is:

D = {(x, y) |x + y + 1 ≥ 0, x
≠ 1}
FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES Example 1 a

The inequality x + y + 1 ≥ 0, or y ≥ –x – 1,
describes the points that lie on or above
the line y = –x – 1

 x ≠ 1 means that
the points on
the line x = 1
must be excluded
from the domain.
FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES Example 1 b

f(3, 2) = 3 ln(22 – 3)
= 3 ln 1
=0

 Since ln(y2 – x) is defined only when y2 – x > 0,

that is, x < y2, the domain of f is:

D = {(x, y)| x < y2

FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES Example 1 b

This is the set of points to the left

of the parabola x = y2.
FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES Example 4

Find the domain and range of:

2 2
g ( x, y )  9  x  y

 The domain of g is:

D = {(x, y)| 9 – x2 – y2 ≥ 0}
= {(x, y)| x2 + y2 ≤ 9}
FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES Example 4

This is the disk with center (0, 0)

and radius 3.
FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES Example 4

The range of g is:

2 2
{z | z  9  x  y , ( x, y )  D}

 Since z is a positive square root, z ≥ 0.

 Also,
9  x 2  y 2 9  9  x 2  y 2 3
FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES Example 4

So, the range is:

{z| 0 ≤ z ≤ 3} = [0, 3]
GRAPHS

Another way of visualizing the behavior

of a function of two variables is to consider
its graph.
GRAPH

If f is a function of two variables with

domain D, then the graph of f is the set of
all points (x, y, z) in 3 such that
z = f(x, y) and (x,y) is in D.
GRAPHS

Just as the graph of a function f of one

variable is a curve C with equation y = f(x),
so the graph of a function f of two variables
is:

 A surface S with equation z = f(x, y)

GRAPHS

We can visualize the graph S of f as

lying directly above or below its domain D
in the xy-plane.
GRAPHS Example 5

Sketch the graph of the function

f(x, y) = 6 – 3x – 2y

 The graph of f has the equation

z = 6 – 3x – 2y
or
3x + 2y + z = 6

 This represents a plane.

GRAPHS Example 5

To graph the plane, we first find

the intercepts.

 Putting y = z = 0 in the equation, we get x = 2

as the x-intercept.

 Similarly, the y-intercept is 3 and the z-intercept

is 6.
GRAPHS Example 5

This helps us sketch the portion of

the graph that lies in the first octant.
LINEAR FUNCTION

The function in Example 5 is a special case

of the function
f(x, y) = ax + by + c

 It is called a linear function.

LINEAR FUNCTIONS

The graph of such a function has

the equation
z = ax + by + c
or
ax + by – z + c = 0

 Thus, it is a plane.
LINEAR FUNCTIONS

In much the same way that linear functions

of one variable are important in single-variable
calculus, we will see that:

 Linear functions of two variables play

a central role in multivariable calculus.
GRAPHS Example 6

Sketch the graph of

2 2
g ( x, y )  9  x  y

 The graph has equation

2 2
z  9 x  y
GRAPHS Example 6

We square both sides of the equation to

obtain:
z2 = 9 – x2 – y2
or
x2 + y2 + z2 = 9

 We recognize this as an equation of the sphere

with center the origin and radius 3.
GRAPHS Example 6

However, since z ≥ 0, the graph of g is

just the top half of this sphere.
GRAPHS Note

An entire sphere can’t be represented

by a single function of x and y.

 As we saw in Example 6, the upper hemisphere

of the sphere x2 + y2 + z2= 9 is represented by
the function 2 2
g ( x, y )  9  x  y
 The lower hemisphere is represented by
the function 2 2
h( x, y )  9  x  y
GRAPHS Example 8

Find the domain and range and sketch

the graph of

h(x, y) = 4x2 + y2
GRAPHS Example 8

Notice that h(x, y) is defined for

all possible ordered pairs of real numbers
(x,y).

 So, the domain is 2, the entire xy-plane.

GRAPHS Example 8

The range of h is the set [0, ∞)

of all nonnegative real numbers.

 Notice that x2 ≥ 0 and y2 ≥ 0.

 So, h(x, y) ≥ 0 for all x and y.

GRAPHS Example 8

The graph of h has the equation

z = 4x2 + y2

 This is the elliptic paraboloid that we sketched

in Example 4 in Section 12.6
GRAPHS Example 8

Horizontal traces
are ellipses and
vertical traces are
parabolas.
GRAPHS BY COMPUTERS

Computer programs are readily available for

graphing functions of two variables.

In most such programs,

 Traces in the vertical planes x = k and y = k

are drawn for equally spaced values of k.
 Parts of the graph are eliminated using
hidden line removal.
GRAPHS BY COMPUTERS

The figure shows computer-generated graphs

of several
functions.
GRAPHS BY COMPUTERS

Notice that we get an especially good picture

of a function when rotation is used to give
views from different vantage points.
GRAPHS BY COMPUTERS

In (a) and (b), the graph of f is very flat and

close to the xy-plane except near the origin.

 This is because e –x2–y2 is small when x or y is large.

LEVEL CURVES

So far, we have two methods for visualizing

functions, arrow diagrams and graphs.

 A third method, borrowed from mapmakers,

is a contour map on which points of constant
elevation are joined to form contour curves,
or level curves.
LEVEL CURVES Definition

The level curves of a function f of two

variables are the curves with equations

f(x, y) = k

where k is a constant
(in the range of f).
LEVEL CURVE

A level curve f(x, y) = k is the set of

all points in the domain of f at which f
takes on a given value k.

 That is, it shows where the graph of f

has height k.
LEVEL CURVES

You can see from the figure the relation

between level curves and horizontal traces.
LEVEL CURVES

The level curves f(x, y) = k are just the traces

of the graph of f in the horizontal plane z = k
projected down
to the xy-plane.
LEVEL CURVES

So, suppose you draw the level curves of

a function and visualize them being lifted up
to the surface
at the indicated
height.
 Then, you
can mentally
piece together
a picture of
the graph.
LEVEL CURVES

The surface is:

 Steep where
the level curves
are close
together.

 Somewhat
flatter where the
level curves are
farther apart.
LEVEL CURVES

One common example of level curves

occurs in
topographic maps
of mountainous
regions, such as
shown.
LEVEL CURVES

The level curves are curves of constant

elevation above
sea level.

 If you walk along

one of these
contour lines,
you neither ascend
nor descend.
LEVEL CURVES Example 9

A contour map for a function f is shown.

 Use it to estimate
the values of
f(1, 3) and f(4, 5).
LEVEL CURVES Example 9

The point (1, 3) lies partway between

the level curves with z-values 70 and 80.

 We estimate
that:
f(1, 3) ≈ 73

 Similarly, we estimate
that:
f(4, 5) ≈ 56
LEVEL CURVES Example 10

Sketch the level curves of the function

f(x, y) = 6 – 3x – 2y

for the values

k = –6, 0, 6, 12
LEVEL CURVES Example 10

The level curves are:

6 – 3x – 2y = k
or
3x + 2y + (k – 6) = 0
LEVEL CURVES Example 10

This is a family of lines with slope –3/2.

The four particular level curves with

k = –6, 0, 6, 12
are:
 3x + 2y – 12 = 0
 3x + 2y – 6 = 0
 3x + 2y = 0
 3x + 2y + 6 = 0
LEVEL CURVES Example 10

The level curves are equally spaced

parallel lines because the graph of f
is a plane.
LEVEL CURVES Example 11

Sketch the level curves of the function

2 2
g ( x, y )  9  x  y

for k = 0, 1, 2, 3

 The level curves are:

2 2 2 2 2
9  x  y k or x  y 9  k
LEVEL CURVES Example 11

This is a family of concentric circles with

2
center (0, 0) and radius 9  k

 The cases
k = 0, 1, 2, 3
are shown.
LEVEL CURVES Example 11

Try to visualize these level curves lifted

up to form a surface.
LEVEL CURVES Example 11

Then, compare the formed surface with

the graph of g (a hemisphere), as in the other
figure.
LEVEL CURVES Example 12

Sketch some level curves of the function

h(x, y) = 4x2 + y2

 The level curves are:

x2 y2
4 x 2  y 2 k or  1
k /4 k
 For k > 0, this describes a family of ellipses
with semiaxes k / 2 and k .
LEVEL CURVES Example 12

The figure shows

a contour map of h
drawn by a computer
with level curves
corresponding to:
k = 0.25, 0.5, 0.75,
...,4
LEVEL CURVES Example 12

This figure shows those

level curves lifted up
to the graph of h
(an elliptic paraboloid)
where they become
horizontal traces.
LEVEL CURVES

The following figure shows some

computer-generated level curves together
with the corresponding computer-generated
graphs.
LEVEL CURVES
LEVEL CURVES

Notice that the level curves in (c) crowd

together near the origin.
 That corresponds to the fact that the graph in (d)
is very steep near the origin.
FUNCTION OF THREE VARIABLES

A function of three variables, f, is a rule

that assigns to each ordered triple (x, y, z)
in a domain D 3 a unique real number denoted
by f(x, y, z).
FUNCTION OF THREE VARIABLES

For instance, the temperature T at a point

on the surface of the earth depends on
the longitude x and latitude y of the point
and on the time t.

 So, we could write:

T = f(x, y, t)
MULTIPLE VARIABLE FUNCTIONS Example 14

Find the domain of f if

f(x, y, z) = ln(z – y) + xy sin z

 The expression for f(x, y, z) is defined

as long as z – y > 0.

 So, the domain of f is: D = {(x, y, z)  3 | z > y}

HALF-SPACE Example 14

This is a half-space consisting

of all points that lie above the plane
z = y.
MULTIPLE VARIABLE FUNCTIONS

It’s very difficult to visualize a function f

of three variables by its graph.

 That would lie in a four-dimensional space.

MULTIPLE VARIABLE FUNCTIONS

However, we do gain some insight into f

by examining its level surfaces—the surfaces
with equations f(x, y, z) = k, where k is a
constant.

 If the point (x, y, z) moves along a level surface,

the value of f(x, y, z) remains fixed.
MULTIPLE VARIABLE FUNCTIONS Example 15

Find the level surfaces of the function

f(x, y, z) = x2 + y2 + z2

 The level surfaces are:

x2 + y2 + z2 = k

where k ≥ 0.
MULTIPLE VARIABLE FUNCTIONS Example 15

These form a family of concentric spheres

with radius k.

 So, as (x, y, z)
varies over any
sphere with
center O, the
value of f(x, y, z)
remains fixed.
MULTIPLE VARIABLE FUNCTIONS

Functions of any number of variables

can be considered.

 A function of n variables is a rule that assigns

a number z = f(x1, x2, . . . , xn) to an n-tuple
(x1, x2, . . . , xn) of real numbers.

 We denote n by the set of all such n-tuples.

MULTIPLE VARIABLE FUNCTIONS

The function f is a real-valued function

whose domain is a subset of n.
Sometimes, we will use vector notation to
write such functions more compactly:

 If x = ‹x1, x2, . . . , xn›, we often write f(x)

in place of f(x1, x2, . . . , xn).
MULTIPLE VARIABLE FUNCTIONS

There is a one-to-one correspondence

between points (x1, x2, . . . , xn) in n and their
position vectors x = ‹x1, x2, . . . , xn› in Vn.

So, we have the following three ways of

looking at a function f defined on a subset
of n.
MULTIPLE VARIABLE FUNCTIONS

1. Function of real variables x1, x2, . . . , xn

2. Function of a single point variable

(x1, x2, . . . , xn)

3. Function of a single vector variable

x = ‹x1, x2, . . . , xn›
MULTIPLE VARIABLE FUNCTIONS

We will see that all three points

of view are useful.