PASSBAND

MODULATION
TECHNIQUES
p. 1
FUNCTIONAL MODEL OF PASS-BAND DATA TRANSMISSION SYSTEM.
 WHAT’S MODULATION &
DEMODULATION?
Digital modulation and demodulation:

– Modulation maps the digital information into an analog

waveform appropriate for transmission over the channel.
Examples: ASK, FSK, PSK

In CW modulation , PM and FM signals are difficult to

distinguish.

PSK and FSK both have constant envelope while ASK does not.
– Demodulation recover the baseband digital information from a
bandpass analog signal at a carrier frequency that is very high
compared to the baseband frequency.
 MODULATION SCHEMES
CLASSIFICATION

 Linear modulation: the amplitude of the transmitted signal,

s(t), varies linearly with the modulating digital signal, m(t).
− Bandwidth efficient but power inefficient
− Example: ASK, QPSK
 Nonlinear modulation: the amplitude of the transmitted
signal, s(t), does not vary linearly with the modulating digital
signal
– Power efficient but bandwidth inefficient
– Example: FSK, constant envelope modulation
HIERARCHY OF DIGITAL MODULATION
TECHNIQUES
 Depending on whether the receiver does phase-recovery or not, the
modulation techniques are divided into:
 Coherent
 Non-coherent
 Phase recovery circuit - ensures synchronization of locally generated
carrier wave (both frequency and phase), with the incoming data stream
from the Tx.
 Binary versus M-ary schemes
 binary – use only two symbol levels;
 M-ary schemes – M-ary ASK, M-ary PSK and M-ary FSK, using
more then one level in the modulation process;
 Hybrid M-ary schemes – quadrature-amplitude modulation (QAM);
preferred over band-pass transmissions when the requirement is to
preserve bandwidth at the expense of increased power
PERFORMANCE MEASURES
 Two key performance measures of a modulation scheme are power
efficiency and bandwidth efficiency
 Power efficiency is a measure of how favorably the tradeoff
between fidelity and signal power is made, and is expressed as the
ratio of the signal energy per bit (Eb) to the noise PSD (N0) required
to achieve a given probability of error (say 10−5):
Small is preferred
p
p Eb 
N
0
 Bandwidth efficiency describes the ability of a modulation
scheme to accommodate data within a limited bandwidth, In
general, it is defined as the ratio of the data bit rate R to the
required RF bandwidth B:
B  R (bps/Hz) Large B is preferred p. 6

B
 GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION
 Any element of set S, S={s1(t), s2(t),…, sM(t)}, can be
represented as a point in a vector space whose
coordinates are basis signals фj(t), j=1,2,…,N, such that

  t  t  dt  0,i 
i j j; ( 
orthogonal) 2

 
E  ⎡⎣ t ⎤⎦
i dt  1; ( normalization)


si t  can be represented as aNlinear combination of the basis signals.

si t    sij j t , i  1,
2," , M p. 7
j1
CONSTELLATION DIAGRAM
 A graphical representation of the complex envelope of each
possible signal
 The x-axis represents the in-phase component and the y-axis
represents the quadrature component of the complex envelope
 The distance between signals on a constellation diagram relates
to how different the modulation waveforms are and how well a
receiver can differentiate between them when random noise is
present.

p. 8
PROBABILITY OF ERROR
 Design goal – minimize the average
probability of symbol error in the presence
of AWGN.
 Signal-space analysis is a tool for setting
decision areas for signal detection over
AWGN (i.e. based on maximum likelihood
signal detection)
 Based on these decisions probability of

symbol error Pe is calculated

 for simple binary coherent methods as coherent
binary PSK and coherent binary FSK, there are
exact formulas for Pe
 for coherent M-ary PSK and coherent M-ary FSK
approximate solutions are sought.
POWER SPECTRA
 power spectra of resulting modulated signals is
important for:
 comparison of virtues and limitations of different
schemes
 study of occupancy of channel bandwidth
 study of co-channel interference
A modulated signal is described in terms of in-phase and quadrature
component as follows:

complex
envelope
 The complex envelope is actually the
baseband version of the modulated
~
(bandpass) signal. s (t )
 s (t) and s (t) as components of are
I Q
low-pass signals.
Let SB(f) denote the power spectral density of the complex
envelope
The power spectral density Ss(f) of the original band-pass signal
s(t) is a frequency shifted version of SB(f) except for a scaling
factor:
 As far as the power spectrum is
concerned it is sufficient to evaluate
~ the
baseband power spectral densitys (t )SB(f) and
since is a low-pass signal, the
calculation of SB(f) should be simpler than
the calculation of Ss(f).
13/
62
DEMODULATIO
N
 Coherent demodulation: requires a replica carrier wave of
the same frequency and phase at the receiver
 The received signal and replica carrier are cross-
correlated
 Also known as synchronous demodulation
 Carrier recovery methods
 Using PLL to recover the carrier phase and frequency
from the transmitted pilot carrier signal,
 Recovering the carrier from the received signals using
costas loop
p.
 Applicable to: PSK, FSK, ASK, etc. 14
DEMODULATION
 Non-coherent demodulation: does not require a
reference carrier wave
– It is less complex than coherent demodulation (easier to
implement), but has worse performance
– Applicable to: DPSK, FSK, etc.
– Example: FSK non-coherent demodulator

p.
15
BASIC MODULATION
 Modulation involves operations on one or more of the three
characteristics of a carrier signal: amplitude, frequency and
phase.
 The three basic modulation methods are:
– Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
– Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
–Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
 These could be applied to binary or M-ary signals.
 There are other variants as well.
p.
16
 WAVEFORMS FOR THE THREE BASIC FORMS OF SIGNALING BINARY
INFORMATION. (A) AMPLITUDE-SHIFT KEYING. (B) PHASE-SHIFT KEYING. (C)
FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYING WITH CONTINUOUS PHASE.
AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING (ASK)
 Strength of carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0
 Both frequency & phase remain constant while amplitude
changes
 Commonly, one of the amplitudes is zero

+A

-A

p.
18
ASK…
Demodulation: Only the presence or absence of a sinusoid

in a given time interval needs to be determined

Advantage: Simplicity
Disadvantage: ASK is very susceptible to noise
interference –noise usually (only) affects the amplitude,
therefore ASK is the modulation technique most affected
by noise
Application: ASK is used to transmit digital data over
optical fiber
p.
19
ASK TRANSMITTER

vd(t)

vc(t)

vASK(
t)

vd(f) vc(f) f

p.
20
BINARY PHASE-SHIFT KEYING
(BPSK)

 Modulation 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1

“1”

“0”

 , , bit duration
 : carrier frequency, chosen to be for some fixed
integer or f c  1/
 : t transmitted
Tb signal energy per bit, i.e.
 The pair of signals differ only in a relative phase shift of
180 degrees
p.
21
SIGNAL SPACE REPRESENTATION FOR
BPSK

 Clearly, there is one basis function of unit energy

 Then

 A binary PSK system is therefore characterized by having a signal

space that is one-dimensional (i.e. N=1), and with two message
points (i.e. M = 2)

s2 0 s1 p.
22
BPSK TRANSMITTER
m(t
Input binary Spectrum Product Binary PSK
)
data shaping filter modulator wave s(t)

Carrier wave

Rectangular
pulse

Polar NRZ s(t)

Bits x(t)

cos(2π fct) p.
23
BPSK RECEIVER

p.
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PSD OF NRZ DATA B(T) & BINARY
PSK

p.
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DECISION RULE OF
BPSK

 Assume that the two signals are equally likely, i.e. P(s1) = P(s2) =
0.5. Then the optimum decision boundary is the midpoint of the
line joining these two message points

Region R2 Region R1

s2 0 s1

 Decision rule:
 Guess signal s1(t) (or binary 1) was transmitted if the received
signal point r falls in region R1
 Guess signal s2(t) (or binary 0) was transmitted otherwise p.
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PROOF OF THE DECISION
RULE

 Observation scalar (output of the demodulator) r is

Where n represents the AWGN component, which has

mean zero and variance
 Thus, the likelihood function of r is

p.
27
 Recall ML decision criterion:
Choose s1
>
<
Choose s2
 Thus
s1
>
<
s2

 And s1
<
>
s2
s1
 Finally >
<
p.
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s2
PROBABILITY OF ERROR FOR
BPSK
 The conditional probability of the receiver deciding in favor of
symbol s2(t) given that s1(t) is transmitted is

0 r

p.
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 BINARY FREQUENCY SHIFT
KEYING
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
 Modulation

“1”

“0”

 : transmitted signal energy per bit

 fi : transmitted frequency with separation f  f1  f 0

 f is selected so that s1(t) and s2(t) are orthogonal i.e.

p.
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 SIGNAL SPACE FOR BFSK

 Unlike BPSK, here two orthogonormal basis functions are

required to represent s1(t) and s2(t).

 Signal space representation

p.
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 Signal space diagram for binary FSK

Message point

Message point

 Observation vector

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BINARY FSK TRANSMITTER

On-off signalling form

1
0

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COHERENT BINARY FSK
RECEIVER

p.
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NON COHERENT BINARY FSK
RECEIVER

p.
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PSD OF
BFSK

p.
36
DECISION REGIONS OF
BINARY FSK

R2 Decision boundary
Message
point
R1

Message point

 The receiver decides in favor of s1 if the received signal point

represented by the observation vector r falls inside region R1.
This occurs when r1 > r2
 When r1 < r2 , r falls inside region R2 and the receiver decides p.
in
37
favor of s2
PROBABILITY OF ERROR FOR BINARY FSK

 Given that s1 is transmitted,

and
 Since the condition r1 < r2 corresponds to the receiver
making a decision in favor of symbol s2, the conditional
probability of error given s1 is transmitted is given by

 Define a new random variable

 Since n1 and n2 are i.i.d with
 Thus, n is also Gaussian with
p.
2013/2014 Meixia Ta
38
 By symmetry

 Since the two signals are equally likely to be transmitted,

the average probability of error for coherent binary FSK is

3 dB worse than BPSK

i.e. to achieve the same Pe, BFSK needs 3dB more

transmission power than BPSK

p.
39
QUADRATURE PHASE SHIFT KEYING
(QPSK)
 PSK that uses phase shifts of 90º=π/2 rad
 4 different signals generated, each representing 2 bits

 Advantage: higher data rate than in PSK (2 bits per bit interval),
while bandwidth occupancy remains the same
 4-PSK can easily be extended to 8-PSK, i.e. n-PSK
 However, higher rate PSK schemes are limited by the ability of
p.
equipment to distinguish small differences in phase 40
p.
41
SIGNAL SPACE
REPRESENTATION

 
Four quadrature signals vm (t )  2 Ps cos  0t  (2m  1)  m 0,1, 2,3
 4
U sin g two ort ho normal signals
2 2
u1 (t )  cos 0 t and u2 (t )  sin 0 t
T T
  2   2
vm (t )  PT cos(2 m  1) cos 0 t   PT sin(2 m  1) sin 0 t
4  4 
s s
 T  T
 
If be  2 cos(2m  1) and bo  2 sin(2m  1)
4 4
then vm (t )  Eb be (t )u1 (t )  Eb bo (t )u2 (t )

p.
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SIGNAL SPACE
REPRESENTATION

p.
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p.
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p.
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QPSK RECEIVER
PSD OF QPSK

p.
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PROBABILITY OF ERROR AND THE
DISTANCE BETWEEN SIGNALS
Parameters BPSK QPSK BFSK
d12 2Eb 2Eb 2Eb

Pe ½ erfc(Eb /No ) erfc(Eb /No ) ½ erfc(0.6Eb /No )

Bandwidth 2fb fb 4fb

requirement
Modulation Linear Linear Non linear

 The expression illustrate the dependence of the

error probability on the distance between two
signal points. In general,
p.
48
MINIMUM SHIFT KEYING(MSK)
TRANSMITTER

Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) is derived from OQPSK by replacing the rectangular
pulse in amplitude with a half-cycle sinusoidal pulse.

p.
The MSK signal is defined as: 49
S(t) = d(t) cos (t/2T) cos 2  ft + d(t) sin ( t/2T) sin 2  ft.
p.
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MSK RECEIVER

p.
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PSD OF MSK

p.
52
 PROBABILITY OF ERROR OF MSK

The MSK modulation makes the phase change linear and limited to ±
(/2) over a bit interval T.
This enables MSK to provide a significant improvement over QPSK.
Because of the effect of the linear phase change, the power spectral
density has low side lobes that help to control adjacent-channel
interference. However the main lobe becomes wider than the
quadrature shift keying. p.
53
 GMSK: GAUSSIAN MINIMUM SHIFT
KEYING
Basis of Operation
1.Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying is a continuous-phase frequency-shift keying (CPFSK)
modulation technique, similar to standard Minimum-Shift Keying (MSK).
2.Digital message data stream: m(t) is first shaped with (passed thru) a pre-modulation linear
Gaussian lowpass filter, which smoothes the phase trajectory of the MSK signal, before
being applied to a frequency modulator.
3.This has the advantage of reducing side-band power, which reduces out-of-band
interference between signal carriers in adjacent frequency channels (i.e.: lower side-lobe RF
power levels).

3.As the bandwidth of the Gaussian lowpass filter is lowered, the amount of Inter- Symbol
Interference (ISI) increases.
4.The degree of filtering is expressed by multiplying the filter’s baseband 3dB bandwidth
(B3dB) by the bit period of the transmission (Tb), i.e. by B3dBTb .
GMSK MODULATION
 Generating GMSK using VCO-FM Modulation Method:
 Using analog (frequency) modulation (FM).
 Influenced by modulator’s sensitivity & linearity of Voltage-
Controlled Oscillator (VCO).

p.
55
GMSK MODULATION…
 Generating GMSK using a ‘Look-up Table’ Method:
 Using an ‘all digital’ baseband transmitter.
 Method is suitable for use in a software-defined radio.

cos  (t)

x(t)
NR Z LO GMSK-modulated
in put LPF b(t)   (t)
RF signal output


Integrator 900
BT
b is variable

sin  (t)

p.
56
To demonstrate the modulation, we are using the following randomly chosen binary
data stream. (This data stream repeats after 12 bits.)
{1,1,-1,1,1,-1,-1,1,-1,1,-1,-1, 1,1,-1,1,1,-1,-1,1,-1,1,-1,-1,............}.
The beginning of this data stream can be represented graphically by the following

As the data passes through the filter it is shaped and ISI (inter symbol interference)
is introduced since more than one bit is passing through the filter at any one time.
For BN = 0.5, since the bits are spread over two bit periods, the second bit enters the
filter as the first is half way through, the third enters as the first leaves etc....
p.
57
p.
58
These two functions I(t) and Q(t) are then passed through the I/Q modulator which
leads to the output signal m(t) which can be written as
m(t) = Sin(2fc t) I(t) + Cos(2  fct) Q(t),

p.
GMSK modulated signal m(t) 59
BER OF GMSK FOR AWGN
CHANNEL

The bit error rate: BER, for a baseband signal modulated with binary
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying: GMSK in an additive white Gaussian
noise (AWGN) environment is influenced by the Gaussian pulse- shaping
filter, which causes Inter-Symbol Interference: ISI, so its probability of bit
error is a function of its Time-Bandwidth product: B3dBTb as:

 E 
 2 E b  1
Pe, GMSK   erfc  N
b 
 N  2 
Q  0   0 


where:  is a constant related to B3dBTb :

 For B3dBTb = 0.25 , then 
= 0.68 p.
 For B3dBTb =  , 60
then  = 0.85
GMSK POWER SPECTRA
COMPARISON:
PSD of QPSK, MSK and GMSK modulations
0
Data Rate: 8192 bps
-10
QPS
MSK
K
-20
Power (dB)

-30

-40

GMSK BT=0.3
-50

-60
GMSK BT=0.5

-700 16384 32768 49152 65536 p.

61
Frequency
(Hz)
 QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE
MODULATION(QAM)
 Uses “two-dimensional” signalling
 Original information stream is split into two sequences that consist of
odd and even symbols, e.g. Bk and Ak
1 0 1 1 0 1 …
1 -1 1 1 -1 1 …
B1 A1 B2 A2 B3 A3 …

A sequence (in-phase comp.) is modulated by cos(2πfc t) and Bk

k
sequence (quadrature-phase comp.) is modulated by
sin(2πfc t) A x k Y (t) = A cos(2f t)i k c

 Composite signal Akcos(2πfc cos(2f t)t) + B sin(2πfc t is

k c
) + sent through
Y(t) = A cos(2f t) + B sin(2f t)
k c k c

the channel B x k Y (t) = B sin(2f t) q

Transmitted Signal
k c

p.
sin(2fct)
62
QAM
QAM can also be seen as a combination of ASK & PSK

Bk
(-A,A) (A, A)

4-level QAM Ak

(-A,-A) (A,-A)

p.
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QAM…

16- level QAM –

p.
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QAM TRANSMITTER

vd(t)
Bk

sin
(ct)

Ak

co
s(ct)

p.
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 QAM RECEIVER
 By multiplying Y(t) by 2 cos(2πfc t) and then low- pass filtering
the resultant signal, sequence Ak is obtained
 By multiplying Y(t) by 2 sin(2πfc t) and then low-pass filtering the
resultant signal, sequence Bk is obtained
Lowpass
Lowpassfilter
A k cos(2πfc t)  Bk sin(2πfc t)  Y(t)
x (smoother)
filter Ak
(smoother)
2cos(2fct)
2Akcos2(2fct)+2Bk cos(2fct)sin(2fct)
= Ak {1 + cos(4fct)}+Bk {0 + sin(4fct)}
Lowpass filter smoothed to zero
x (smoother) Bk
1
cos2 (A)  1 cos(2A)
2 2sin(2fct)
sin2 (A) 
1
1 cos(2A) 2Bk sin2(2fct)+2Ak cos(2fct)sin(2fct)
2 = Bk {1 - cos(4fct)}+Ak {0 + sin(4fct)}
sin(2A)  2sin(A)cos(A)
p.
smoothed to zero 66
PROBABILITY OF ERROR OF M-ARY
QAM

p.
67
 DIFFERENTIAL PSK
(DPSK)
 DPSK can be viewed as the non-coherent version of PSK.
 Phase synchronization is eliminated using differential encoding
 Encoding the information in phase difference between
successive signal transmission
 In effect:
 to send “0”, we phase advance the current signal waveform
by 1800 ;
 to send “1”, we leave the phase unchanged

p.
68
 DPSK…
 We can generate DPSK signals by combining two basic
operations
 Differential encoding of the information binary bits
 Phase shift keying

 The differential encoding process starts with an arbitrary

first bit, serving as reference
 Let {mi} be input information binary bit sequence, {di} be
the differentially encoded bit sequence
 If the incoming bit mi is “1”, leave the symbol di unchanged
with respect to the previous bit di-1
 If the incoming bit mi is “0”, change the symbol di with
respect to the previous bit di-1
p.
69
DPSK TRANSMITTER

 The reference bit is chosen arbitrary, here taken as 1

1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 mi
Binary data
Differentially
encoded 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 di d i  d i 1  mi
binary data Initial bit
p.
Transmitted 70
Phase 0 0  0 0  0 0 0
DPSK RECEIVER

p.
71
DPSK RECEIVER …

 Multiply the received DPSK signal with its delayed version

 Output of integrator (assume noise free)

 The unknown phase becomes irrelevant

 If = 0 (bit 1), the integrator output y is positive
 if = π (bit 0), the integrator output y is negative

p.
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ERROR PROBABILITY OF
DPSK

 The differential detector is suboptimal in the sense of

error performance
 It can be shown that

p.
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M-ARY MODULATION
TECHNIQUES
 In binary data transmission, send only one of two possible signals
during each bit interval Tb
 In M-ary data transmission, send one of M possible signals during
each signaling interval T
 In almost all applications, M = 2n and T = nTb, where n is an
integer
 Each of the M signals is called a symbol
 These signals are generated by changing the amplitude, phase or
frequency of a carrier in M discrete steps.
 Thus, we have M-ary ASK, M-ary PSK, and M-ary FSK digital
modulation schemes
p.
74
M-ARY PHASE-SHIFT KEYING
(MPSK)

 The phase of the carrier takes on M possible values:

 Signal set:

 = 1Energy per symbol

 f 
c
T
 Basis functions

p.
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MPSK…
 Signal space representation

p.
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MPSK SIGNAL CONSTELLATIONS

BPSK QPSK 8PSK 16PSK

p.
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MPSK TRANSMITTER

p.
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MPSK RECEIVER

p.
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MPSK…
 Euclidean Distance is given by

 Probability of Error is given by

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PSD OF MPSK

p.
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MFSK TRANSMITTER

p.
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MFSK RECEIVER

p.
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PSD OF MFSK

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SIGNAL SPACE REPRESENTATION
OF MFSK

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MFSK…
 Bandwidth of MFSK is given by

 Euclidean distance is given by

p.
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ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING
 Used extensively in broadband wired and wireless
communication system.
 Effective solution to the inter symbol interference caused by a
dispersive channel.
 Converts a frequency-selective channel into a parallel
collection of frequency flat sub channels .
 The subcarriers have the minimum frequency separation
required to maintain orthogonality.
 The signal spectra corresponding to the different subcarriers
overlap in frequency. p.
87
 Hence, the available bandwidth is used very efficiently.

p.
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SUBCARRIERS ARE
ORTHOGONAL WITH
OVERLAPPING SPECTRA

OFDM spectrum
p.
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OFDM…
 OFDM is a block modulation scheme where a N block of
information symbols is transmitted in parallel on N subcarriers.
 The time duration of an OFDM symbol is N times larger than
that of a single-carrier system.
 An OFDM modulator can be implemented as an IFFT on a
block of information N symbols followed by an analog-to-
digital converter.
 Each block of N IFFT coefficients is typically preceded by a
cyclic prefix or a guard interval consisting of G samples.
 Mitigate the effect of intersymbol interference caused by
channel time spread
p.
90
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF OFDM

p.
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Thank You

p.
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