Unit 4

AC Machines

Dr. G.R.Venkatakrishnan

G.R.Venkatakrishnan Online Learning – Unit 4

Alternator or three phase AC generator
 The AC machine, which generates an alternating emf, is called a
three-phase AC generator or an alternator.

 Since the alternator rotates at a synchronous speed, Nsyn, it is

also called a synchronous generator.

 In general, an alternator is of three-phase type, as a three-phase
power system has more advantages when compared to a single-
phase power system.
 This generator is mainly used to generate large power at the
power stations.
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Working principle
 An alternator generates the emf using the principle of
electromagnetic induction, which states that, if a stationary
conductor is placed in a moving magnetic field, an emf is induced in
it.

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Construction
 Similar to an induction motor, the two important parts of an
alternator are the stator and the rotor, where the stationary part of the
machine that carries the armature winding is called a stator and the
rotating part of the machine that produces the field is called a rotor.
 Here, the output or the induced emf is generated in the stator,
whereas the main field required to generate the induced emf is
produced at the rotor

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Construction (contd..,)

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Stator
 The stator is the stationary part of the alternator and it consists
of different parts like stator frame, stator core and stator
windings.
 Stator frame is the outer cover of the alternator, made up of a
cast iron or mild steel-frame and helps in protecting the inner
parts of the alternator and supports the stator core.
 In addition, it provides a closed path for the magnetic flux to
pass through stator windings.
 The stator or armature core is made of laminated steel or
magnetic iron
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Stator (Contd..,)
 The armature core is slotted in the inner periphery to accommodate the
stator or armature winding.
 It also provides a path for the magnetic flux.

 The armature core is laminated to reduce the constant losses in the

alternator.
 The three-phase balanced star-connected stator armature winding may be
single layered or double layered.
 Since the windings are balanced, the number of turns and the size of wire
used in the windings should be the same.
 The induced emf in the alternator is brought out of the alternator using the
stator windings.
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
Stator (Contd..,)

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Rotor
 The rotating part of the alternator is called a rotor and it is like a
flywheel with alternate N and S-pole electromagnets on it.
 These electromagnets are magnetized using DC excitation.
 Since the rotor is rotating, the excitation voltage is given through
slip rings and brushes, which are fixed on the frame.
 The two different types of rotors used in an alternator are:
 Salient pole or projecting pole
 Smooth cylindrical or non – salient pole

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Salient or projecting pole
 This type of rotor consists of even number of heavy-iron poles
projecting from the rotor core surface.
 It is primarily used in alternators that rotate at low and medium
speeds.
 This type of rotor construction is used as a prime mover in
hydraulic and internal combustion turbines.
 The axial length of the rotor is less where as the diameter of the
rotor is high.

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Salient or projecting pole (Contd..,)
 The field or rotor windings are provided on the pole face and excited
by the DC supply through slip rings.
 Steel spider attached to the shaft helps in providing a path for the
magnetic flux.

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Smooth cylindrical or non – salient rotor
 In this type, the poles are formed when the current flows
through the rotor or field windings.
 When compared to a salient rotor, it has small rotor diameter
and large axial length.
 It is used in driving steam turbines or turbo alternators that
rotate at high speeds.
 It is made up of cast iron and is cylindrical in shape.

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Smooth cylindrical (Contd..,)
 The rotor or field windings are placed in the slots provided at
the outer periphery and wound in such a way that alternate N
and S poles are formed when it is excited.
 A uniform air-gap is maintained between the stator and the rotor.

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Comparison

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Rotating field vs rotating armature
 In the above construction of an alternator, the field windings are
rotating and the armature conductors are stationary.
 It is possible to construct an alternator with rotating armature and
stationary field-windings.
 But this type of construction is not practically used due to the
following advantages of rotating field and stationary armature.

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Rotating field vs rotating armature (Contd..,)
 More space can be provided to accommodate conductors that
help in generating very high voltages.
 Easier to protect the conductors if armature is stationary.
 Connecting the stationary armature to the load is easier and it
avoids the usage of slip ring and brush assembly. But, slip ring
and brushes are required to excite the rotor windings.
 Sparking problems at the slip rings can be avoided.

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Rotating field vs rotating armature (Contd..,)
 Since the field system has low inertia, it is easier to be rotated
instead of rotating the high-inertia armature conductors.
 Overall construction of the machine becomes simple. Also, for a
given alternator size, the output is high when compared to an
alternator with rotating armature and stationary field.
 Initial cost is less when compared to rotating armature and
stationary-field alternator because the number of brushes and slip
rings required is less.
 Good ventilation system can be provided if the armature
conductors are
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Online Learning – Unit 4 17
Terminologies used in windings
 Conductor
 Turn
 Coil
 Pole – pitch
 Coil side
 Coil span or coil pitch
 Slot angle

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Terminologies (Contd..,)
 Conductor
 When the armature conductor placed in armature slot, it experiences
the influence of magnetic field
 Number of conductors in a machine is denoted as Z

 Turn
 When two different conductors placed in different armature slots are
connected, it forms a turn
 Therefore, Z = 2 x Number of turns

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Terminologies (Contd..,)
 Coil
 When the turns are grouped together, it forms a coil.

 If the number of coils is NC and number of turns per coil is NT, then the

total number of turns and total number of conductors in a DC generator

can be determined.

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Terminologies (Contd..,)
 Pole – pitch
 It is defined as the distance between two adjacent poles that is given by
the ratio of armature slots to the number of poles in a DC generator.
 If the bore diameter of the armature is known, then the pole pitch is
given by.
π Bore diameter of armature
Pole  Pitch 
Number of poles, P

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Terminologies (Contd..,)
 Coil side
 The conductor group on one side forms one coil side and the conductor
group on other side forms the second coil side

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Terminologies (Contd..,)
 Coil span or coil – pitch
 It is defined as the distance between two coil sides, which are joined
together to form a coil.
 Based on the relation between coil span and pole pitch, the coils are
classified as:
 full-pitch coil, if coil span and pole pitch are equal and
 short-chorded or short-pitched coil, if coil span is less than the pole pitch.

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Terminologies (Contd..,)
 Slot angle
 It is defined as the phase difference in electrical degrees contributed by
one slot.
 It is given by
 It is noted that there is a relation between the mechanical and electrical
degrees, which is given by

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Types of armature windings
 Single and double-layer winding: If one coil side is placed in an armature slot,
then it is called a single-layer winding and if two coil sides are placed in an
armature slot, it is called a double-layer winding.
 Full-pitch and short-pitch winding: If a coil side in a slot is connected to the
other coil side, which is placed at a distance of one pole-pitch, then it is called a
full-pitch winding. If the distance between two coil sides, placed in two
different slots, is less than one pole-pitch, then it is called a short-pitch winding.
 Concentrated and distributed winding: If the conductors or coils belonging
to a phase are placed in one slot placed under one pole, it is called a
concentrated winding. If the conductors or coils belonging to a phase are placed
in many slots placed under one pole, it is called a distributed winding.
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Working
 When the field windings are energized using a DC supply through
slip rings, alternate N and S poles are generated in the case of a
smooth rotor and hence magnetic flux is produced.
 The prime movers are used to rotate the rotor and field windings.
 As the rotor rotates, the stationary armature conductors are cut by
the magnetic flux.
 Due to the principle of electromagnetic induction, an emf is induced
in the stator conductors.

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Working (Contd..,)
 Since the rotor poles are alternative in nature, the induced emfs in
the stator conductors are also alternating in nature and their
directions are given by Fleming’s rule.
 The frequency of the induced emf depends on the number of N and
S poles that the armature conductors pass in one second.
 Therefore, the frequency of induced emf in the stationary armature
conductors is given by

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EMF equation
 In an alternator, when the stationary armature conductor cuts the
magnetic flux generated by the rotor, which is rotated using the prime
mover, an emf is induced in the armature conductor.

 This induced emf is called generated emf, denoted by Eph.

 Consider that P is the total number of poles of the alternator, is the flux
produced per pole in Weber, Z is the total number of armature
conductors, Nsyn is the rotor speed or synchronous speed in rpm and Zph

is the number of armature conductors per phase, connected in series.

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EMF equation (contd..,)
 In one revolution of armature core, the total flux cut by one
conductor of the armature is given by

 The time taken by the rotor to complete one revolution is given by

 According to Faraday’s law, the average emf induced in one

armature conductor is given by

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EMF equation (contd..,)
 Therefore,

i.e.,
 Hence, the emf induced per turn is given by

 If Tph is the total number of turns connected in series such that T ph =

Zph / 2 . Then, the net average emf induced per phase is given by

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EMF equation (Contd..,)
 Hence, the RMS value of the induced emf is given by

 But the generalized emf equation of the alternator is given by

Where Kc is the pitch coil factor and Kd is the distribution factor

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EMF equation (Contd..,)

 Pitch coil factor, K

c

 It is given by the ratio of emf induced when the coil is short-pitched to

the emf induced when the coil is full-pitched.
 It is denoted by KC, which is always less than one.
 It is represented by

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EMF equation (Contd..,)
 Distribution factor, Kd

 The factor by which the emf induced in the armature gets reduced due to coil
distribution is called distribution factor.

 It is denoted by Kd, which is always less than one.

 It is represented by

Where, m is the number of slots per pole per phase

 It is noted that for a full-pitch coil and concentrated winding, K C = 1 and

Kd = 1.
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Parameters of Armature winding
 Armature resistance, Ra
 Armature leakage reactance, Xa
 Armature reaction reactance, Xar

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Armature resistance, Ra
 The armature winding, placed in the armature slots of the stator,

has its own resistance called armature resistance, R a.

 For each phase, the effective armature resistance is denoted by

Raph or Ra ohm/ph.

 It is known that the armature winding in an alternator can be

connected either in star or delta connection.

 If R is the armature resistance between two phases, then the

RY

armature resistance is given by

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Armature leakage reactance, Xa
 When a closed circuit is provided, the current starts flowing
through the armature and hence an armature flux is produced.
 It is clear that some part of the armature flux completes its path
through the air gap and this flux is called leakage flux, which
makes the armature winding more inductive.

 Hence, the armature winding, in addition to Ra, possesses a

leakage reactance, Xa, where Xa > > Ra.

 If L is the leakage inductance per phase of the armature winding

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Armature reaction reactance, Xar
 The interaction between the armature flux and main flux is called
armature reaction.
 This armature reaction depends not only on the current flowing
through the armature winding but also on the power factor of the
load connected to it.
 The detailed analysis of the armature reaction in an alternator
using a phasor diagram and waveform is explained, by assuming
the following points:

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Armature reaction reactance, (Contd..,)
 The main flux is taken as the reference point.

 The emf induced in the armature, Eph, lags the main flux fm by 90°.

 Due to Eph, a current called armature current Io is induced in it.

 The angle between Eph and Ia depends on the power factor of the load

i.e., lagging or leading or unity power-factor.

 Due to the current Ia, a flux called armature flux is produced, which is

in phase with the armature current, Ia.

 Using these points, the phasor diagrams of the alternator for unity,
lagging and leading power-factor loads are drawn.
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Armature reaction reactance, (Contd..,)

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Armature reaction reactance, (Contd..,)
 The phase difference between the main flux and armature flux is
90° for unity power-factor load, 180° for lagging power-factor
load and in-phase for leading power-factor load.
 The main and armature flux waveforms depicting this relation for
unity, lagging and leading power-factor loads are drawn

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Armature reaction reactance, (Contd..,)
 Therefore, the effects of armature flux on main field flux are:
 Distorting effect, of armature reaction for unity power-factor, as it causes a drop in
the terminal voltage of the alternator.
 Demagnetizing effect of the armature reaction for lagging power-factor, as
armature flux cancels the main flux. This effect causes a drop in the terminal
voltage and this drop is higher when compared to the drop in unity power-factor
load.
 Cross-magnetizing effect of the armature reaction for leading power-factor, as
armature supports the main flux. This effect increases in the terminal voltage of the
alternator.

 It is noted that in all the power factors, due to armature reaction, there is a
change in the terminal voltage, which is considered as a drop across a fictitious
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reactance called armature reactance, X ohm/ph.
Synchronous reactance and Impedance
 Synchronous reactance
 Defined as the sum of the fictitious armature reaction reactance
and the leakage reactance.
 It is denoted by Xs. Therefore

Xs = Xar + Xa

 Synchronous Impedance
 Obtained by combining the synchronous reactance and armature
resistance.

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It is denoted by Zs
Equivalent circuit of alternator


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Voltage equation of an alternator
 Since the emf induced in the alternator has to supply the
terminal voltage in addition to the drop across the armature
resistance, the armature leakage reactance and the armature
reaction reactance, the emf induced in the alternator in vector
form is given by:

 Using this voltage equation and phasor diagram for different

power-factor loads, the relation between Eph and Vt is obtained.

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Phasor diagram of alternator
 General steps

 Armature current, Ia, is taken as the reference phasor.

 Using the relation between Vt and Ia i.e., based on the power factor of the

load, the vector Vt is drawn.

 The drop across the armature resistance Ra, is in phase with Ia and is drawn

from the terminal voltage end-point.

 Then, the drop across the synchronous impedance is considered. Since it is
purely inductive, the drop is drawn such that it leads the current by 90°.
 Finally, the induced emf is drawn from the origin.
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Lagging power factor load

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Leading power factor load

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Unity power factor load

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Phasor diagram (Contd..,)
 Using the concept of right-angled triangle, we get the
generalized expression for induced emf as

where (+) is for lagging power-factor load and (–) is for leading
power-factor load
 For unity power factor load, we get

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Voltage regulation of an alternator
 The ratio of change in the terminal voltage of the alternator to the
rated terminal voltage when full load is removed by keeping the
excitation and motor speed as constant is called voltage regulation.
 It is given by

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Voltage regulation (Contd..,)
 The voltage regulation depends on
the armature current and also on the
power factor of the load.
 The load characteristics of the
alternator between the terminal
voltage and armature current for
different power factors are shown

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Methods to determine voltage regulation

 The different methods to obtain the voltage regulation of an

alternator are:
 Direct-loading method
 Synchronous-impedance method or emf method
 Ampere-turns method or mmf method
 Zero power-factor method or potier triangle method
 ASA-modified form of mmf method
 Two-reaction theory

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 THANK YOU

Dr. G.R.Venkatakrishnan
[email protected]

G.R.Venkatakrishnan Online Learning – Unit 4