Defining Networks with the OSI

Model
Lesson 2
Objectives
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
• The Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) reference model is used to
define how data communication
occurs on computer networks.
• This model is divided into layers,
each of which provides services to
the layers above and below.
• These layers are associated with
protocols and devices.
OSI Model Layers
• Layer 1 – Physical layer
• Layer 2 – Data link layer (DLL)
• Layer 3 – Network layer
• Layer 4 – Transport layer
• Layer 5 – Session layer
• Layer 6 – Presentation layer
• Layer 7 – Application layer
OSI Model Layers
Layer 1 – Physical Layer
• This is the physical and electrical medium
for data transfer.
• It includes but is not limited to cables, jacks,
patch panels, punch blocks, hubs, and MAUs.
• Concepts related to the physical layer
include topologies, analog versus
digital/encoding, bit synchronization,
baseband versus broadband, multiplexing,
and serial (5-volt logic) data transfer.
• The unit of measurement used on this layer
is bits.
Communications Subnetwork
• The communications subnetwork is
the guts of OSI model transmissions,
consisting of layers 1 through 3.
• Regardless of what type of data
transmission occurs in a computer
network, the communication
subnetwork will be employed.
Networking Standards
• Networking standards such as 100BASE-T are
based on the physical layer.
– The 100 in 100BASE-T stands for 100 Mbps,
– The BASE means baseband
– The T stands for twisted-pair cabling.
• Baseband refers to the fact that all computers
on the LAN share the same channel or
frequency to transmit data, in this case 100
MHz.
• Conversely, broadband means that there are
multiple channels that can be utilized by the
communications system.
Layer 2 – Data Link Layer (DLL)
• This layer establishes, maintains, and decides
how transfer is accomplished over the physical
layer.
• Devices that exist on the DLL are network
interface cards and bridges.
• This layer also ensures error-free transmission
over the physical layer under LAN transmissions.
• It does so through physical addresses (the
hexadecimal address that is burned into the ROM
of the NIC), otherwise known as the MAC address
(to be discussed more later in this lesson).
• The unit of measurement used on this layer is
frames.
Media Access Control Address
• In an Ethernet network, every network
adapter must have a unique Media Access
Control (MAC) address.
• The MAC address is a unique identifier
assigned to network adapters by the
manufacturer.
• This address is six octets in length and is
written in hexadecimal
Layer 2 Switches
• A layer 2 switch is the most common
type of switch used on a LAN.
• These switches are hardware based and
use the MAC address of each host
computer’s network adapter when
deciding where to direct frames of data
• Every port on the switch is mapped to
the specific MAC address of the computer
that physically connects to it.
Layer 2 Switches
• Security is a concern with layer 2
switches.
• Switches have memory that is set
aside to store the MAC address to
port translation table, known as the
Content Addressable Memory table
or CAM table.
• This table can be compromised with
a MAC Flood attack.
Virtual LAN (VLAN)
• Layer 2 switching can also allow for a virtual
LAN (VLAN) to be implemented.
• A VLAN is implemented to segment the network,
reduce collisions, organize the network, boost
performance, and hopefully, increase security.
• The most common standard associated with
VLANs is IEEE 802.1Q, which modifies Ethernet
frames by “tagging” them with the appropriate
VLAN information, based on which VLAN the
Ethernet frame should be directed to.
• VLANs are used to restrict access to network
resources, but this can be bypassed through the
use of VLAN hopping.
Packets
Layer 3 – Network Layer
• This layer is dedicated to routing and
switching information to different networks,
LANs, or internetworks.
• Devices that exist on the network layer are
routers and IP switches.
• Here, we are getting into the logical
addressing of hosts. Instead of physical
addresses, the addressing system of the
computer is stored in the operating system—
for example, IP addresses.
• The unit of measurement used on this layer is
packets.
Layer 3 Switches
• Switches also reside on the network layer.
• A layer 3 switch differs from a layer 2 switch
in that it determines paths for data using
logical addressing (IP addresses) instead of
physical addressing (MAC addresses).
• Layer 3 switches are similar to routers—it’s
how a network engineer implements the
switch that makes it different.
• Layer 3 switches forward packets, whereas
layer 2 switches forward frames.
• Layer 3 switches are usually managed
switches.
Layer 4 – Transport Layer
• This layer ensures error-free
transmission between hosts through
logical addressing.
– Therefore, it manages the transmission of
messages through layers 1 through 3.
• The protocols that are categorized by
this layer break up messages, send them
through the subnet, and ensure correct
reassembly at the receiving end, making
sure there are no duplicates or lost
messages.
TCP and UDP
• Two common TCP/IP protocols that are
utilized on this layer include the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP),
which is a connection-oriented protocol,
and the User Datagram Protocol
(UDP), which is connectionless.
• An example of an application that uses
TCP is a web browser, and an example
of an application that uses UDP is
streaming media.
Layer 4 – Transport Layer
• This layer contains both connection-
oriented and connectionless systems,
which will be covered later in the book.
• Inbound and outbound ports are
controlled by this layer. When you think
“ports,” think the transport layer.
• The unit of measurement used on this
layer is sometimes referred to as
segments or messages. All layers above
this one use the terms “data” and
“messages.”
Connection Oriented Communications
• Connection-oriented (also known as CO mode)
communications require that both devices or
computers involved in the communication
establish an end-to-end logical connection
before data can be sent between the two.
• These connection-oriented systems are often
considered reliable network services.
• If an individual packet is not delivered in a
timely manner, it is resent; this can be done
because the sending computer established
the connection at the beginning of the session
and knows where to resend the packet.
Connectionless Communications
• In connectionless communications (CL mode),
no end-to-end connection is necessary before
data is sent.
• Every packet that is sent has the destination
address located in its header.
• This is sufficient to move independent packets,
such as in the previously mentioned streaming
media.
• But if a packet is lost, it cannot be resent,
because the sending computer never
established a logical connection and doesn’t
know which logical connection to use to send
the failed packet.
Ports
• Layer 4 also takes care of the ports
that a computer uses for data
transmission.
• Ports act as logical communications
endpoints for computers.
• There are a total of 65,536 ports,
numbering between 0 and 65,535.
• They are defined by the Internet
Assigned Numbers Authority or IANA
and divided into categories
Ports
Ports
• It is important to understand the
difference between inbound and
outbound ports:
– Inbound ports
– Outbound ports
Ports
Layer 5 – Session Layer
• This layer governs the establishment,
termination, and synchronization of
sessions within the OS over the
network and between hosts—for
example, when you log on and log off.
• This is the layer that controls the name
and address database for the OS or
NOS. NetBIOS (Network Basic Input
Output System) works on this layer.
NetStat Command
Layer 6 – Presentation Layer
• This layer translates the data format
from sender to receiver in the
various OSes that may be used.
• Concepts include code conversion,
data compression, and file
encryption.
• Redirectors work on this layer, such
as mapped network drives that
enable a computer to access file
shares on a remote computer.
Layer 7 – Application Layer
• This layer is where message creation
—and, therefore packet creation—
begins.
• End-user protocols such as FTP,
SMTP, Telnet, and RAS work at this
layer.
• This layer is not the application itself,
but the protocols that are initiated by
this layer.
HTTP Packet
OSI Model Revisited
OSI Model Revisited
TCP Model
• The TCP/IP (or TCP) model is similar
to the OSI model.
• It is often used by software
manufacturers who are not as
concerned with how information is
sent over physical media, or how the
data link is actually made.
• This model is composed of only four
layers.
TCP Model
• Layer 1: Data link layer (also simply
known as the link layer)
• Layer 2: Network layer (also known as
the Internet layer)
• Layer 3: Transport layer
• Layer 4: Application layer

• The OSI physical layer is skipped altogether,