Contents

 Sawing and broaching

 Economics of cutting
 Abrasive Grinding
 Abrasive Finishing
 Honing
 Lapping
 Polishing and Buffing
 Sawing :
Introduction
• Sawing is a fundamental machining process
used to cut materials into desired shapes and
sizes.
• It is commonly used in manufacturing,
construction, and metalworking industries.
The process involves a toothed blade or wire Fig. SAWING Operation
to remove material in the form of chips.
 Types of Sawing Operations

Sawing operations are classified based on the 2. Bandsawing

type of motion and cutting tool used. The major •Utilizes a continuous looped blade
types include: running on two wheels.
1. Hacksawing •Suitable for straight and curved cuts.
•Uses a reciprocating (back-and-forth) blade to •Available in vertical and horizontal
cut material. configurations.
•Mostly used for straight-line cutting of metals •Used in metalworking and woodworking
and plastics. industries.
•Can be manual or powered.

Fig. Hacksaw Fig. Band saw

Continued…
3. Circular Sawing
•Employs a rotating circular blade to cut through material.
•Provides high precision and fast cutting speed.
•Common in woodworking, metal cutting, and construction.

Fig. Circular saw

Continued…
4. Abrasive Sawing
•Uses a grinding wheel instead of a toothed blade.
•Best for cutting hard materials like hardened steel, ceramics, and composites.
•High-speed operation with minimal deformation.
5. Cold Sawing
•Uses a toothed, heat-resistant circular blade for precision cutting.
•Produces minimal heat, reducing material distortion.
•Ideal for cutting metal tubes and solid bars.

Fig. Power hacksaw Machine Fig. Cold saw Machine

Continued…
6. Friction Sawing
•Utilizes a high-speed steel disc without teeth to generate heat and friction for
cutting.
•Effective for cutting tough metals and thick sections.
7. Power Sawing (Reciprocating and Jigsaws)
•Includes electric-powered tools such as jigsaws and reciprocating saws.
•Suitable for cutting irregular shapes and curves.

Fig. Friction Saw Machine Fig. Power hacksaw Machine

 Working Principle of Sawing
Sawing involves the removal of material by a series of small, sharp teeth
that repeatedly chip away at the workpiece. The process follows these
steps:
1.The workpiece is securely clamped to prevent movement.
2.The cutting tool (saw blade) is brought into contact with the material.
3.The saw applies force while moving in a reciprocating, rotating, or
continuous motion.
4.Material is gradually removed in the form of small chips.
5.The process continues until the required cut is achieved.
Advantages of Sawing
•Fast and efficient material removal.
•Capable of cutting a wide range of materials.
•Produces accurate and clean cuts.
•Low operational cost compared to other
machining methods.

Applications of Sawing
•Cutting metal bars, pipes, and sheets in
manufacturing.
•Wood cutting in furniture and construction
industries.
•Precision cutting in automotive, aerospace, and
fabrication shops.
•Cutting plastic and composite materials in
industrial applications.
 Broaching
Introduction
•Broaching is a machining process that uses a toothed tool, called a
broach, to remove material in a single pass.
•Used to produce complex shapes with high precision and
efficiency.
•Commonly used in automotive, aerospace, and manufacturing
industries.

Working Principle of Broaching

•A broach moves linearly relative to the workpiece.
•Cutting action is performed by successive teeth of the
broach.
•Each tooth removes a small amount of material,
resulting in a precise final shape.
•Types: Internal broaching (holes, keyways) and
external broaching (surfaces, slots).
 Types of Broaching

A. Based on Motion
•Linear Broaching: The broach moves linearly over the workpiece.
•Rotary Broaching: The broach rotates while cutting (used for polygonal
holes).

B. Based on Tool Construction

•Pull Broach: Pulled through the workpiece.
•Push Broach: Pushed through the workpiece.
•Shell Broach: Used for large diameters.

C. Based on Application
•Internal Broaching: Used for holes, keyways, splines.
•External Broaching: Used for flat surfaces, slots, and external profiles.
Broaching Tools and Equipment
•Broach Tool: A long tool with progressively larger
cutting teeth.
•Broaching Machine: Types include vertical, horizontal,
and continuous broaching machines.
•Coolants and Lubricants: Used to improve cutting
efficiency and tool life.

Advantages of Broaching
•High precision and surface finish.
•Capable of complex shapes in a single pass.
•High production rate with minimal operator
skill required.
•Cost-effective for mass production.
 Limitations of Broaching
•High initial tooling cost.
•Limited to specific shapes and materials.
•Not suitable for very hard or tough materials.
•Broach tools have a limited life and require replacement.

Applications of Broaching
•Automotive Industry: Gears, splines, keyways.
•Aerospace Industry: Turbine discs, engine components.
•Manufacturing: Cutting internal and external profiles in metal parts.
•Defense Sector: Production of firearm components.
 Economics of cutting:

Introduction
The economics of cutting in machining processes refers to optimizing
cutting conditions to minimize costs while maximizing efficiency, quality,
and tool life. It involves analyzing machining parameters such as cutting
speed, feed rate, depth of cut, and tool wear to achieve cost-effective
manufacturing.
Importance of Cutting Economics
•Reduces manufacturing costs.
•Improves productivity and efficiency.
•Enhances tool life and material utilization.
•Maintains product quality and accuracy.
 Key Cost Factors in Machining
Direct Costs
•Machine Operating Costs: Power consumption, maintenance, and
depreciation.
•Labor Costs: Operator wages and supervision expenses.
•Tooling Costs: Cost of tools, tool wear, and replacement.
•Material Costs: Raw materials and wastage considerations.

Indirect Costs
•Overhead Costs: Facility expenses, administration, and indirect
labor.
•Quality Control Costs: Inspection, rework, and rejection costs.
•Downtime Costs: Machine setup time, changeovers, and idle
times.
 Optimization of Cutting Parameters
Cutting Speed (Vc)
•Affects tool wear, surface finish, and machining time.
•Higher speeds increase productivity but may reduce tool life.
Feed Rate (f)
•Determines material removal rate and tool load.
•Optimized feed rates balance speed and tool life.
Depth of Cut
• Higher depth reduces passes but increases cutting forces and wear.
Tool Life Optimization (Taylor’s Equation)
•Tool life equation: VT^n = C, where V = cutting speed, T = tool life, n and C
are constants.
•Balancing tool life and cutting conditions minimizes overall machining costs
 Cost Analysis in Machining
Total Cost per Unit (TCU)
•TCU = (Tool Cost + Labor Cost + Machine Cost + Material Cost) / Total
Units Produced
•Reducing tool changes, improving efficiency, and reducing rework
minimizes TCU.

Machining Cost per Piece

•Includes fixed and variable costs.
•Cost per piece = (Setup Cost + Machining Cost + Tooling Cost) / Total
Pieces
 Strategies to Improve Machining Economics
Tool Selection and Maintenance
•Using high-performance coatings (e.g., TiN, AlTiN) to extend tool life.
•Regular tool maintenance and monitoring wear.
Process Automation
•CNC automation reduces labor costs and enhances precision.
•IoT-based predictive maintenance minimizes downtime.
Cutting Fluid Optimization
•Proper selection of lubricants improves cooling, tool life, and surface finish.
•Using minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) for cost efficiency.
Lean Manufacturing Approaches
•Reducing waste using techniques like Six Sigma and Kaizen.
•Streamlining material flow and minimizing idle times.
 Case Studies & Real-World Applications
•Aerospace Industry: Optimization of machining
processes for high-strength alloys.
•Automotive Industry: Lean production techniques in
mass manufacturing.
•Small & Medium Enterprises (SMEs): Cost-effective
machining strategies for small-batch production.
 Future Trends in Machining Economics

•AI & Machine Learning: Predictive analytics for tool wear

and process optimization.
•Sustainable Machining: Eco-friendly practices such as dry
machining and biodegradable coolants.
•Advanced Materials & Coatings: New cutting tool
materials for enhanced performance.
 Abrasive grinding:
Abrasive processes utilize very small abrasive grains to remove material in order to provide
good finish on metallic parts.
Introduction
Abrasive grinding is a material removal process that utilizes abrasive particles to cut,
shape, and finish workpieces. It is widely used in manufacturing, automotive,
aerospace, and tool-making industries for achieving high precision and surface quality.

Principle of Abrasive Grinding

•Grinding involves abrasive grains that act as
cutting edges, removing small chips of material.
•The grinding wheel rotates at high speed,
making contact with the workpiece.
•Friction between the abrasive grains and the
workpiece leads to material removal through
mechanical action and thermal effects.
 Types of Abrasive Grinding Processes

1.Surface Grinding – Used for flat surfaces; employs a rotating wheel.

2.Cylindrical Grinding – Used for external and internal cylindrical
surfaces.
3.Centerless Grinding – No center holding; suitable for mass production.
4.Tool and Cutter Grinding – Used for sharpening tools and cutters.
5.Internal Grinding – Used for finishing holes and cylindrical bores.
6.Creep-Feed Grinding – Removes large amounts of material with slow
feed rates.
 Grinding Machine Components

1.Grinding Wheel – The cutting tool.

2.Workpiece – The material being ground.
3.Wheel Guard – Safety cover for the grinding
wheel.
4.Table & Work Holding Device – Holds and moves
the workpiece.
5.Spindle – Rotates the grinding wheel.
6.Coolant System – Reduces heat and improves
finish.
 Working of Abrasive Grinding

•The workpiece is held firmly on the table or between centers.

•The grinding wheel rotates at high speed, contacting the workpiece.
•The material is removed in the form of tiny chips due to friction and pressure.
•Coolant is applied to minimize heat generation and improve surface quality.
•The finished component achieves high accuracy and smoothness.
 Applications of Abrasive Grinding
•Manufacturing industry – Producing precision components.
•Automotive sector – Engine components, crankshafts, gears.
•Aerospace industry – Turbine blades, high-precision parts.
•Tool-making industry – Sharpening drills, cutters, and tools.
•Medical sector – Surgical tools and implants.

Advantages of Grinding Process

•High dimensional accuracy.
•Smooth surface finish.
•Can machine hard materials (hardened steels, ceramics, etc.).
•Can produce complex shapes and contours.
•Suitable for mass production and precision machining.
Disadvantages of Grinding
•High heat generation can cause thermal damage.
•Requires high power consumption.
•Slow material removal rate compared to other machining
processes.
•Expensive grinding wheels and machines
 Abrasive Finishing
Introduction
Abrasive finishing is a group of machining processes that use abrasive particles to
remove material and improve surface quality.
These processes are used for precision machining, surface finishing, and dimensional
accuracy in various industries, including automotive, aerospace, and medical
equipment manufacturing.

Principle of Abrasive Finishing

Abrasive finishing works on the principle of mechanical material
removal, where fine abrasive particles interact with the
workpiece surface, cutting microscopic chips and improving
surface texture. The process may involve free abrasives (loose
particles) or bonded abrasives (fixed in tools).
 Types of Abrasive Finishing Processes
1. Grinding
•Uses a rotating wheel with bonded abrasives.
•Removes material at high speeds.
•Used for high precision and close tolerances.

2. Honing
•Uses a multi-stone tool in a reciprocating motion.
•Improves the cylindrical bore accuracy and surface finish.

3. Lapping
•Involves abrasive slurry on a flat plate.
•Produces ultra-smooth, high-precision surfaces.

4. Superfinishing
•Uses oscillating fine-grain abrasives under low pressure.
•Removes micro-level imperfections.
5. Polishing
•Uses soft abrasives to create a mirror-like finish.
•Common in decorative and functional applications.

6. Buffing
•Uses loose abrasives on a cloth wheel.
•Achieves aesthetic surface quality.

7. Abrasive Flow Machining (AFM)

•Uses viscous abrasive media forced through workpiece passages.
•Improves internal surface finish.

8. Magnetic Abrasive Finishing (MAF)

•Uses magnetic fields to control abrasives.
•Ideal for finishing hard-to-reach areas.
Abrasives Used in Finishing:-
Natural Abrasives:
•Diamond (Hardest, used for precision cutting)
•Quartz
•Garnet
Synthetic Abrasives:
•Aluminium Oxide (Al₂O₃)
•Silicon Carbide (SiC)
•Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)
Advantages of Abrasive Finishing
•High precision and accuracy.
•Superior surface finish and smoothness.
•Can process hard and brittle materials.
•Applicable for internal and external surfaces.
•Enhances wear resistance and longevity.

Limitations of Abrasive Finishing

•Slow material removal rate.
•High operational cost for precision processes.
•Requires skilled operators for optimal results.
•Some methods generate heat, requiring cooling.
 Honing
Honing is a precision machining process used
to improve the surface finish and dimensional
accuracy of cylindrical holes. It involves
abrasive stones mounted on a rotating tool
that reciprocates inside the hole, removing
small amounts of material.

Working Principle
•A honing tool with multiple abrasive stones is pressed against the workpiece’s inner
surface.
•The tool rotates while simultaneously moving back and forth (reciprocating motion).
•This removes minor imperfections, corrects shape errors, and improves the surface
finish.
•Typically removes 0.025–0.25 mm of material.
•Performed after boring or grinding to refine the surface.
Applications

•Engine cylinder bores for better lubrication

retention.
•Hydraulic cylinders to ensure smooth
movement.
•Bearing surfaces to achieve precise tolerances.

Advantages
•Produces highly accurate cylindrical bores.
•Improves surface texture and roundness.
•Corrects minor shape errors.
 Lapping
Lapping is a superfinishing process used to produce
extremely smooth and flat surfaces by rubbing the
workpiece against a lapping plate with fine abrasive
particles.

Working Principle
•A lapping plate is coated with an abrasive slurry (Al₂O₃,
SiC, or diamond particles).
•The workpiece is placed on the plate and moved in a
random or controlled motion.
•Material is removed by micro-abrasion, producing an
ultra-smooth surface with high dimensional accuracy.
Applications
•Optical lenses for precision surfaces.
•Mechanical seals to ensure leak-proof
performance.
•Gauge blocks and precision measuring tools.

Advantages
•Produces mirror-like surface finishes.
•Achieves extremely tight tolerances.
•Removes surface defects without altering
shape.
 Polishing
Polishing is a surface finishing process used to enhance the appearance,
smoothness, and reflectivity of a material by removing minor
imperfections, scratches, and oxidation layers. It is widely applied in
metalworking, optics, automotive, and electronics industries.

Principle
Polishing involves using abrasive particles on a
rotating wheel, belt, or disc to remove surface
imperfections and create a smoother finish.
Steps Involved

1.Surface Preparation – Cleaning the workpiece to remove dirt and debris.

2.Coarse Polishing – Using coarse abrasives (grit sizes from 60-400) to
remove deep scratches and surface defects.
3.Intermediate Polishing – Employing medium-grit abrasives (400-800) to
refine the surface.
4.Fine Polishing – Using high-grit abrasives (1000-5000) to achieve a
smooth, uniform finish.
5.Final Cleaning – Removing residual abrasive material from the polished
surface.
Types of Polishing

1.Mechanical Polishing – Uses abrasive materials like sandpaper or polishing wheels.

2.Chemical Polishing – Involves chemical reactions to smooth surfaces without
mechanical action.
3.Electrolytic Polishing (Electropolishing) – Uses an electrolytic bath to remove surface
irregularities.
4.Abrasive Flow Polishing – Uses a fluid mixture with abrasives to polish complex shapes.
5.Magnetic Abrasive Polishing – Uses magnetic forces to move abrasives and polish
surfaces.
 Polishing Materials and Tools

•Abrasives: Diamond, alumina (Al₂O₃), silicon carbide (SiC),

cerium oxide.
•Polishing Pads: Soft cloth, felt, or synthetic materials.
•Polishing Compounds: Wax, pastes, or slurries.
•Polishing Machines: Rotary polishers, vibratory polishers,
and automated CNC polishing systems.
Working of Polishing Process

1.Surface Preparation – Cleaning the material to remove dust and contaminants.

2.Selection of Abrasive – Choosing an appropriate grit size for initial and final polishing.
3.Application of Polishing Compound – Spreading the compound to aid in material removal.
4.Mechanical Action – Applying pressure and motion to achieve a smooth finish.
5.Final Cleaning – Removing residual polishing compounds and verifying the finish.
 Applications of Polishing

•Automotive Industry – Car body finishing, chrome

polishing.
•Jewelry & Watchmaking – Enhancing the shine and
appearance.
•Optics & Lenses – Achieving precise transparency and
smoothness.
•Medical & Surgical Instruments – Ensuring hygienic and
smooth surfaces.
•Electronics – Polishing semiconductor wafers for
microelectronics.
Advantages of Polishing

•Enhances aesthetic appeal and smoothness.

•Improves corrosion and oxidation resistance.
•Reduces friction and wear on moving parts.
•Prepares surface Applications of Polishing
• Automotive Industry – Car body finishing, chrome polishing.
• Jewelry & Watchmaking – Enhancing the shine and appearance.
• Optics & Lenses – Achieving precise transparency and smoothness.
• Medical & Surgical Instruments – Ensuring hygienic and smooth
surfaces.
• Electronics – Polishing semiconductor wafers for microelectronics.
Limitations of Polishing:
• Time-consuming and labor-intensive for manual processes.
• High cost for advanced polishing techniques.
• Requires precise control to avoid over-polishing.
• Can generate heat, affecting material properties.
 Buffing
Introduction
Buffing is a finishing process used to achieve a high-gloss, smooth surface on
metals, plastics, and other materials. It involves the use of a rotating wheel with
an abrasive compound to remove minor surface imperfections and enhance the
aesthetic appearance of the workpiece.

Principle of Buffing
Buffing relies on the mechanical action of abrasives
embedded in a buffing wheel or disc. The combination
of friction, heat, and polishing compounds smooths the
surface by removing fine scratches and oxidation layers.
Unlike grinding, buffing does not remove a significant
amount of material but rather refines the surface.
 Types of Buffing
1. Cut Buffing
•Uses coarse abrasives to remove oxidation, scratches, and surface defects.
•Higher pressure is applied for material removal.
2. Color Buffing (Polishing Buffing)
•Uses fine abrasives to achieve a mirror-like finish.
•Lower pressure and finer compounds enhance the final appearance.
3. Dry Buffing
•Performed without lubrication (compounds or pastes).
•Generates higher heat and is used for harder materials.
4. Wet Buffing
•Uses liquid or paste polishing compounds to reduce friction.
•Suitable for delicate materials like plastics and soft metals.
Buffing Tools & Equipment

1.Buffing Wheels – Made of cloth, felt, or sisal fibers.

2.Buffing Compounds – Abrasive pastes classified as
cutting compounds (coarse) or finishing compounds
(fine).
3.Buffing Machines – Stationary bench grinders or
handheld rotary tools.
4.Safety Equipment – Goggles, gloves, and dust masks to
protect against fine particles.
Buffing Process Steps

1.Surface Preparation – Remove dirt, grease, or major imperfections.

2.Coarse Buffing (Cut Buffing) – Apply an abrasive compound and use a stiff
buffing wheel.
3.Intermediate Buffing – Use medium-grit compounds to refine the surface.
4.Final Buffing (Color Buffing) – Apply fine polishing compounds with a soft
wheel for a glossy finish.
5.Cleaning & Inspection – Remove residual compounds and inspect the surface
for uniformity.
Applications of Buffing
•Automotive Industry – Polishing car bodies, chrome parts, and aluminum
wheels.
•Jewelry Manufacturing – Achieving a high-gloss finish on gold, silver, and
platinum.
•Metalworking – Enhancing the appearance of stainless steel and brass.
•Plastic & Acrylic Processing – Removing scratches and improving transparency.
•Furniture Industry – Polishing wood and lacquered surfaces.
Advantages of Buffing
•Enhances aesthetic appeal by providing a mirror-like finish.
•Removes fine scratches and oxidation without altering dimensions.
•Improves corrosion resistance by sealing the surface.
•Compatible with various materials like metals, plastics, and composites.

Limitations of Buffing
•Does not correct deep imperfections or structural defects.
•Generates heat, which may damage heat-sensitive materials.
•Requires frequent compound application for consistent results.
•Can be labor-intensive for manual applications
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