PHT 427 LECTURE SERIES

MODULE 5: PROCESSING AND

ANALYSIS OF DATA
 objectives
• To edit, categorize and code data

• to recognize & prepare tables and graphs in result

presentation

• To differentiate the use of descriptive and inferential

statistics

• To follow guidelines in interpreting analyzed data .

 Types of data
• “Research data, unlike other types of information, is
collected, observed, or created, for purposes of analysis to
produce original research results.
• “results after collected data have been processed and
analysed by a researcher (recoded, combined, categorized,
visualised, etc.).”
Types:
• Primary and Secondary
• Quantitative & Qualitative
Quantitative • Emerged in the late 19 th century
to the beginning 20 th century
data Initiated by researches from
physical sciences, physics and
chemistery.
• Focus of observation: identifying
educational patterns by assessing
or measuring individual abilities,
collecting scores or numbers.
• Three historical trends: statistical
procedures, test and measurement
practices, research design.
• description of findings
quantitative numerical data
statistics formal and
Qualitative data • Developed during the late 19 th century to
the beginning of 20 th century Used in
education more recent than that of
quantitative research .
• Three themes that shape its history in
education: philosophical ideas, procedural
developments, participatory and advocacy
practices,real time interviews etc.
• Use deductive and inductive analysis.
• The words are transcribed into themes and
symbols.
• It is exploratory in nature.
• It is expressed in ranges, and words.
• EGGs
 Data processing
This aspect involves presentation, analysis and interpretation of data
gathered out of the instruments and methods used in the study.

It is divided into two sections: 1) the data presentation

2) data analysis and interpretation

Data Presentation: The purpose of this aspect is to prepare the organization of data
into logical and sequential order to make a meaningful presentation.

The raw data collected is processed into quantitative and qualitative forms for
data presentation. There are two major steps in carrying out this stage of research:
they are :

• Data Processing

• Data tabulating
 Data processing
• Data processing involves the preparation of organizing

the raw fact and figures collected .

• It is the process of converting them into quantitative and

qualitative forms of information called data.

• This include (a) editing (b) categorization of data (c)

coding the answers from the measuring instrument like

 Processing operations
• Editing: involves a careful scrutiny of the completed
questionnaires and/or schedules.

• Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate, consistent

with other facts gathered, uniformly entered, as completed as
possible and have been well arranged to facilitate coding and
tabulation.

• Editing ensure that the information on the questionnaire is

complete, accurate and consistent.

• Also identifies ambiguities and errors in responses.

 Processing cont.d
• Field editing is review of the reporting forms by the
investigator for completing (translating or rewriting) what
the latter has written in abbreviated and/or in illegible form,
at the time of recording the respondents’ responses

• Central editing should take place when all forms or

schedules have been completed and returned to the office.
This type of editing implies that all forms should get a
thorough editing by a single editor in a small study and by a
team of editors in case of a large inquiry
 Categorisation
• Categorisation of data refers to the grouping of subjects
according to the objectives of the study or research
problem.
• It is a process of partitioning a body of data , subject are
categorized based on the specific objectives of the study.
• It is mapping of data into a limited number of categories
carefully chosen which contain critical information
needed for analysis. Grouping of data.
 Guidelines in establishing of category sets
• Appropriateness : Refers to the relevancy of the information to
the research problem

• Exhaustive: Refers to providing adequate list of alternatives to

a given category set to avoid under –representation in the
final analysis..

• Exclusivity: It clarified by the operational definition of concepts

used in the study.

• Classification: Refers to a single dimension of a category set.

Applying classification principle is defined interms one concept.
 Coding
• Coding: Coding refers to the process of assigning
numerals or other symbols to answers so that responses
can be put into a limited number of categories or classes.
Such classes should be appropriate to the research
problem under consideration.

• Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through it

the several replies may be reduced to asmall number of
classes which contain the critical information required for
 Tabulation:
Tabulation: is the process of summarising raw data and displaying
the same in compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical tables)
for further analysis. In a broader sense, tabulation is an orderly
arrangement of data in columns and rows.
• It can be done manually, mechanically, or electronically.
• Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons:
• It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive
statement to a minimum.
• It facilitates the process of comparison.
• It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors
and omissions.
• It provides a basis for various statistical computations.
 Tabulation process
• It starts with the determination of the classification and
sub classification of variables as done in cartegorisation.

• Rows are prepared for the classes by drawing a horizontal

line with appropriate spaces between the lines.

• Columns are made for the subclasses by drawing vertical

lines with appropriate spaces between the lines and the
number of the columns
 Comparison of physical characteristics of participants across
3 groups
GRP A GRP B GRP C
X ± S.D X ± S.D X ± S.D F-ratio P-
values
Variables
Age ( years) 47.1± 10.20 45.1±13.8543.4±10.92 0.52
0.60
Weight (kg) 79.5±9.14 77.2±9.75 76.5±9.22 0.55
0.58
Height (m) 1.66±0.66 1.66±0.07 1.66±0.07 0.01
0.99
BMI (kg/m2) 28.9±3.70 28.2±3.77 27.9±3.47 0.45
0.64
______________________________________________________________________
___
 Presentation of Tabulated Data
Data are presented in four ways:
Narrative
Tabular
Graphical
Pictorial
 Tabular presentation
• Tabular presentation is a systematic arrangement of
data in which categories or classes of variables are
given in each row as well as their sub classes and a
column is given in order to present their relationships.

• the purpose is to facilitate the analysis and

interpretation of the data

• Tabular presentation has three elements: (1) data

matrix (2) a table (3) distribution and percentages
 …Tabular presentation
Data matrix: This is usually in a tabular form. It give clearer picture

of the behavior of the variables.

They are of three types: univariate, bivariate and multivariate.

Univariate: involve only one variable In th tabulation

Bivariate: Involves two variables in the tabulation

Multivariate: this applies when more than two variables are

involved
 Table description
A table consist of columns each with headings of its own , At
the left margin is a description of the variables material as
classified according to the column heading.
A table must should have the following parts:
Table Headings: Consist of the table number and the title.
Box Head: Is found at the top of the column. It identifies what
are contained in the column.
Stubs: are classifications or categories found at the left side
of the body of the table itemizing what contains then box
head
Body: is the main part of the table containing the substance
 Distribution and percentages
The distribution is a summary of the frequency of
individual values or ranges of values for a variable.
• There is a list of every value of variable and the
number of persons who had each values.
• Frequency distributions can be presented in two
ways, as a table or as a graph.
Distribution may also be presented using percentage.
• Percentages is the proportion of those who
answered a question multiplied by 100(%).
 Graphical Presentation
• Graphical Presentation highlights and supports the
tabular presentation of data.

• A graph is a diagram showing the variation, changes

and relationships between or among variables.

• The three types of statistical graph commonly used

are: Bar graph, line graph and pie chart .
Bar Chart
Line graph
Pie Chart
Pictorial Presentation
• Is also called picture graph
• Pictorial presentation could also be in a form of
photographs or other visual aids which are labelled
figures used to supplement and emphasize information
given in tables.
• They are to elaborate, clarify and facilitate analysis and
interpretation of data.
Narrative Presentation
• It is also called textual presentation,
• It presented before the table and graphical illustration
 Data Analysis and interpretation
• The analysis and interpretation of the data provide meaning

to the behaviors of the variables under investigation.

• In carrying out this stage of research, Statistic become

necessary .

• With the advent of computer, the introduction of statistical

package ( E.G Statistical Package For Social Sciences)

 Data Analysis
• The analysis of research data is imperative to finding

results and solutions to research questions and

research objectives.

• Data analysis can be defined as examination

of data or facts in term quantity and quality in

order to solve specific problem.

 Data Analysis : statistics
• Statistics has been generally agreed as the art and

science of collecting, organizing, presenting ,

analyzing and interpreting data for more effective

decision. Statistics has two categories:

Descriptive statistics

Inferential statistics
 Descriptive Statistics:

• Descriptive statistics is a method of organizing , summarizing and

presenting data in an informative way.

• It is a statistical analysis that describes the basic features or

characteristics of the data.

• They form the basis of every quantitative analysis of data. DS

present quantitative description of the category in two forms:
Measurement of central tendency: Mean (X), mode and median

Measures of variability.: Range, Variance(S ,Standard Deviation

(s.d),
 Inferential Statistics
• This consist of different statistical tools or tests used in

making inferences from or conclusion from a sampled data

• IS are grouped into Parametric and nonparametric test.

• Before selecting statistical tests or techniques, the researcher

must be familiar with level of measurement.:

 Level of measurement
• Nominal : Each value is a distinct category and the value itself
serves merely as a label. EG male and female

• Ordinal: cartegories are ranked. E,G classification into lower,

middle and higher class.

• Interval:level of measurement has the property that the

distance between variables, it does not has definite zero. E.g
thermometer (34 C to 44C)

• Ratio: It has all the properties of number, has definite zero. EG

height and weight.
 Parametric Tests
• They are used when the data are measured by
interval and ratio scale.

• They are used when there is normal probability

distribution .

• There are several kind of parametric test:

• Examples are: independent t Test/Student t-

Test.Friedman ANOVA
 Nonparametric

• They do not require a normal distribution.

• They are used when data are nominal and

ordinal .

• Examples are: Chi-square test, Wilcoxon Rank

Data Analysis flowchat