Unit 6:

Gene Expression and Regulation

AP Biology
Unit 6: Gene Expression and
Regulation
• 6.1: History of DNA
• 6.2: DNA
• 6.3: Replication of DNA
• 6.4: Central Dogma
• 6.5: Transcription
• 6.6: Translation
• 6.7: Mutations
• 6.8:Gene Mutations
• 6.9: Chromosome Mutations
• 6.10: Prokaryotic Regulation
• 6.11: Eukaryotic Regulation
 6.1: History of DNA
• 1869: Friedrich Miescher.
• First to discover DNA.
• Extracted white blood cells
from blood and lysed the
cells.
• Called it ‘Nuclein’.
6.1: History of DNA
• 1928, Griffith Experiment
• Griffith was working with bacteria that
caused pneumonia.
• S (Smooth) strain of bacteria would kill the
mouse.
• R (Rough) strain would not kill the mouse.
• Boiled S strain, killing the cells. Injected
boiled S strain into the mouse and the
mouse was ok!
• Mixed boiled S strain and R strain and
injected it into the mouse. Killed the mouse.
• Hypothesis: There is some kind of chemical
substance that isn’t alive that is capable of
transforming a cell.
• Came up with Transformation Principle.
6.1: History of DNA
• 1952

• Hypothesis: Proteins are genetic

code of life.
• Labeled outside of virus (protein)
with radioactive isotope.
• New Viruses were not radioactive.
• Was not the code for life.

• Hypothesis: DNA is genetic code

of life.
• Labeled DNA with radioactive
isotope.
• New Viruses were radioactive.
• DNA is the blueprint of life!!
6.1: History of DNA

• 1950s
• Scientists knew
DNA was made of
nucleotides, but
didn’t understand
total structure.
• Rosalind Franklin
studied x-ray
diffraction and was
studying DNA.
• Took “Photo 51”
 6.1: History of DNA
• 1953
• Wilkins “shared” photo with
James Watson and Francis
Crick.
• Watson and Crick created
first accurate model of DNA
with Franklin’s work.
 6.1: History of DNA
• Franklin published her research, but it was
placed behind Watson and Cricks’ paper, which
made it look like it just supported their work.
• Franklin died in 1958 from Cancer, most likely
from working so much in the X-ray Diffraction
machines which were radioactive.
• Watson, Crick, and Wilkins received Nobel Prize
in Medicine in 1962.
• People cannot receive the award after they’ve died.
• Watson and Crick wrote a book about their
discovery, misleading statements about
Rosalind.
 6.1: History of DNA
Year Scientist(s) What They Did How They Did It Conclusion

1869 Friedrich Miescher Discovered a substance in white Isolated material from the nuclei First identification of DNA, though
blood cells called nuclein. of pus cells in bandages function unknown

1928 Frederick Griffith Found a "transforming Injected mice with live & dead Something in dead S bacteria
principle" that transferred traits forms of bacteria (S and R strains) transformed live R bacteria

Treated extracts with enzymes to

1944 Avery, MacLeod, Identified DNA as the destroy proteins, RNA, or DNA; DNA is the genetic material, not
McCarty transforming principle only DNA destruction stopped protein
change

Proved DNA, not protein, is the Used viruses (bacteriophages) Only DNA entered bacteria,
1952 Hershey & Chase genetic material labeled with radioactive sulfur confirming it's the genetic material
(protein) & phosphorus (DNA)

1953 Watson & Crick (w/ Discovered the double helix Used Franklin’s X-ray image to DNA is a double helix with base-
build 3D model with base pairing pairing rules
Franklin & Wilkins) structure of DNA (A=T, C≡G)

1961–66 Nirenberg, Khorana & Cracked the genetic code Used synthetic RNA in test tubes Showed how DNA codes for
others to link codons to amino acids proteins using codons
 6.2: DNA
• Nucleotides
(monomers) are the
building blocks of DNA
(polymers).
• DNA is blueprint of life.
 6.2: DNA
• Nucleotides
• Phosphate Group
• Ring Shaped Sugar
Molecule: Deoxyribose
• Nitrogen containing base:
Single or Double Ring
 6.2: DNA
• 4 different types in
nucleotides.
• Adenine (A)
• Guanine (G)
• Thymine (T)
• Cytosine (C)
• Sugar and phosphate group
are identical in each
nucleotide.
 6.2: DNA
• Pyrimidines: Single ring
nucleotide.
• Cytosine
• Thymine (DNA Only)
• Uracil (RNA Only)
• Purines: Double ring nucleotide.
• Adenine
• Guanine
 6.2: DNA
• Chargaff’s Rule
• Erwin Chargaff discovered:
• Percent of A approximately equals T.
• Percent of G approximately equals C.
• This is true for all species!
Chargaff Example Question 1
You find a new type of bacteria and sequence the
genome and find the percentage of thymine is
21%, what is the percentage of adenine?

21%
Chargaff Example Question 2
A geneticist sequences the genome of a lion and finds
the percentage of guanine is 34%, what is the
percentage of adenine?
G = 34% 100% 32%/2 = 16%
C = 34% -68% A = 16%
32% = A/T T = 16%
G/C=68%
 6.2: DNA
• Complementary Base
Pairing: Each purine is
always bonded to a
specific pyrimidine.
• A:T
• G:C

C-N BONDS IN SUGARS

 6.2: DNA
• DNA consists of two chains of
nucleotides in a twisted ladder
structure (Double Helix).
• Nucleotides connected by
covalent bonds going up each
side.
• Sugar-phosphate Backbone.
• Sides of DNA.
• Support for nitrogen bases.
 6.2: DNA
• Hydrogen bonds form
between bases.
• G ≡ C: Triple Hydrogen
Bond
• A = T: Double Hydrogen
Bond
 6.2: DNA
• Antiparallel: Two bases are
flipped to each other, run in
opposite directions.
• One end is known as the 5’
end while the other is known
as the 3’ end.
• 5’ end is phosphate.
• 3’ end is sugar.
 6.2: DNA
• Grooves of DNA are unequal.
• Larger groove called Major
Groove.
• Smaller groove called Minor
Groove.
• Molecules access DNA based on
groove.
1958: Meselson & Stahl
 6.3: Replication of DNA

• Semiconservative
Replication: Each
daughter strands acts as
a template for the new
strand of DNA.
 6.3: Replication of DNA

• DNA Replication:
Process of producing
two identical replicas
from one original DNA
molecule.
• Occurs during S phase.
 6.3: Replication of DNA

•Topoisomerase:
Enzyme that helps
unwind DNA. Relaxes
the twist.
 6.3: Replication of DNA

• Helicase: Enzyme that

unzips parents strands
of DNA. Breaks
hydrogen bonds.
 6.3: Replication of DNA

• Origin of Replication:
Location where
replication begins.
• Replication Fork:
Location where
helicase breaks bonds.
 6.3: Replication of DNA

• Single Stranded Binding

Proteins: Molecules that
help keep DNA single
stranded. Also keeps DNA
from being damaged or
cut.
6.3: Replication of DNA
• Primase: Enzyme that
places RNA primer
for DNA polymerase
to bind with.
• RNA primer show
DNA Polymerase
where to bind.
6.3: Replication of DNA
• DNA Polymerase III:
Enzyme that pairs
free floating
nucleotides to their
complementary base.
• A with T, G with C.
6.3: Replication of DNA
 DNA Polymerase III: synthesizes the new
DNA strand and begins the process by
adding nucleotides to the primer on the
template strand.
 DNA Polymerase I: comes in later to
remove the RNA primers and fill in the
gaps with DNA.
 DNA Polymerase II is mainly involved in
DNA repair and proofreading, it doesn't
directly initiate the replication process but
works to correct errors during replication.
 6.3: Replication of DNA
• DNA Polymerase makes in a 5’
to 3’ direction.
• Runs along the 3’ to 5’
direction.
• Produces 1,000 bases per
second.
• Creates two different strands
of replication: Leading and
Lagging.
 6.3: Replication of DNA
• Leading strand: Continually
made. DNA Poly moves
towards replication fork.
• Lagging strand: DNA Poly
moves away from
replication fork. Creates
small sections known as
Okazaki fragments.
6.3: Replication of DNA
• DNA Polymerase I: Enzyme
that removes the RNA
primer and adds in DNA
nucleotides.
6.3: Replication of DNA

•Ligase: Enzymes
that bonds new
strands together
on lagging.
 6.3: Replication of DNA
• DNA polymerase III is very
accurate.
• Around 1 error per
100,000-1,000,000 bp
• DNA polymerase II
proofreads the DNA code to
check for errors.
6.3: Replication of DNA
• Nucleotide Excision Repair:
Nuclease cuts out incorrect pairing
of nucleotides. DNA polymerase fills
in with correct nucleotides.
• This reduces error to 1 in 100 million-
1 billion base pairs.
Xeroderma pigmentosum
• Genetic Disorder
• UV radiation from sun
can cause Thymine-
Thymine dimers.
• Mutation in DNA
enzymes that repair UV
damage in skin cells
• Can’t go out in sunlight
• Increased skin
cancers/cataracts
• 1 in 1,000,000 million
6.4: Central Dogma
1. Replication: DNA copies
itself.
2. Transcription: Sequence
of DNA is copied into
mRNA.
3. Translation: mRNA is read
by a ribosome and
converted into a
sequence of amino acids.
 6.4: Central Dogma
• RNA
• Ribose sugar.
• Uracil, no thymine.
• Single stranded
instead of double*
Ribose vs. Deoxyribose
DNA  RNA
AU
TA
GC
CG
6.4: Central Dogma

• mRNA = Messenger
RNA: Copy of DNA
that is transferred to
ribosomes.
6.4: Central Dogma

•tRNA = Transfer RNA:

Transfers amino acids
to the ribosomes.
 6.4: Central Dogma

• rRNA = Ribosomal RNA:

rRNA and proteins make
ribosome.
 Cookbook is
located in the
Analogy
kitchen (nucleus) Photocopy

Ingredients =
amino acids
Finished cake
= Protein
Kitchen Counter
= Ribosome
Transcription Translation
DNA mRNA Protein
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YlOqI3PQwjo
6.5: Transcription
• RNA Polymerase unzips the DNA at specific
location called a promoter.
6.5: Transcription
• RNA Polymerase makes
complimentary strand of
RNA in a 5’ to 3’ direction.
6.5: Transcription
• Template Strand: Side
that is used by RNA
Polymerase.
• Coding Strand:
Sequence is the same
as mRNA.
DNA has two strands:

🟠 Coding Strand (Sense / Plus)

🟢 Template Strand (Antisense / Minus)

• The template strand is the one that RNA polymerase reads to make mRNA.
• The mRNA is complementary to the template strand and has the same sequence as the coding strand
(except U instead of T).
• Think of the template strand as the one being copied, and the coding strand as the final product's twin!
Transcription Practice
DNA: G C A T T A G G C A T G G C C A
RNA: C G U A A U C C G U A C C G G U
6.5: Transcription
• RNA polymerase stops transcribing gene when it
comes to termination site.
• Section of mRNA detaches from RNA polymerase.
 6.6: Translation

•mRNA sequence leaves

the nucleus.
•mRNA finds and
attaches to ribosome.
•Ribosome reads mRNA
codons.
6.6: Translation

•20 different amino

acids make up
proteins.
•1 letter and 3 letter
abbreviation.
6.6: Translation

•Codon: triplet code of nucleotides

•1 codon = 1 amino acid
Codon Charts
6.6: Translation
• First Letter, Second Letter, Third
Letter.
• Use abbreviation on Amino Acid
Chart.
• Examples
• GCU
• CGA
• UUU
• AAG
6.6: Translation
• First Letter, Second Letter, Third
Letter.
• Use abbreviation on Amino Acid
Chart.
• Examples
• GAU
• CAU
• UAG
• AUG
6.6: Translation
• Degenerate: Several amino acids have more than one
codon.
• Unambiguous: Each codon has only one meaning.
 6.6: Translation

• Start and Stop Signals:

• Start Codon: AUG
• Three Stop Codons: UAA,
UAG, UGA
• 61 different codons.
 6.6: Translation
• tRNA
• Anticodon: three bases
complementary and antiparallel
to the mRNA codon.
• One of 20 amino acids on
opposite end.
• tRNA molecules bring in amino acids
to ribosome.
6.6: Translation
• Ribosome
• Ribosomal subunits
(large and small)
• rRNA and proteins
6.6: Translation
• rRNA in orange and
yellow
• Proteins in blue.
 6.6: Translation
• Ribosome
• A Site (Amino Site): Where next
tRNA enters ribosome.
• P Site (Peptide Site): Holds
growing polypeptide chain.
• E Site (Exit Site): Where tRNA
exits the ribosome.
6.6: Translation
• Protein
• Sequence of amino acids determines the structure of the protein.
• Structure determines function.
• Amino acids will fold/bond to each other based on sequence.
6.6: Translation
• Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase
• Enzyme that charges tRNA
with correct amino acid.
• Two steps:
• Amino acid is phosphorylated
by ATP.
• Amino acid is transferred to
tRNA.
6.7: Mutations
• Gene Mutation:
Permanent change in the
sequence of bases in DNA.
• Germline mutations can
pass from generation to
generation.
 6.7: Mutations
• Spontaneous Mutation:
Random mutations that
occur in normal biological
processes such as replication
errors.
• Occurs very rarely, 1 in 1
billion after proofreading.
• Induced Mutations:
Mutations caused by
exposure to chemicals or
radiation.
• Caused by mutagens.
 6.7: Mutations
• If you change the amino acid
sequence, you can possibly
change the structure of the
protein.
• When structure changes,
function changes.
 6.7: Mutations
• With one point mutation in
hemoglobin gene, blood cells
will not develop correctly.
• Creates sickle blood cell known
as sickle cell anemia.
• Blood cells don’t pick up oxygen,
don’t function correctly.
 6.8: Gene Mutations
• Point Mutations:
Change in a single DNA
nucleotide and possible
change for a specific
amino acid.
 6.8: Gene Mutations
• Substitution: One base
pair is replaced by a
different base pair.
• Missense
• Nonsense
• Silent
6.8: Gene Mutations
• Missense Mutation: Occurs
when a mutation changes
the amino acid sequence.
• Conservative: Properties of
amino acid remains the
same.
• Non-conservative:
Properties of amino acid
changes.
 6.8: Gene Mutations
• Nonsense Mutation:
Occurs when a mutation
changes an amino acid to
a stop codon.
• Ribosome stops
translating. Protein not
fully made.
 6.8: Gene Mutations

• Silent Mutation: Occurs

when mutation doesn’t
change amino acid from
original DNA sequence.
 6.8: Gene Mutations
• Frameshift Mutations:
Occurs when one or more
nucleotides are either
removed or inserted
which completely changes
sequence of codons.
6.8: Gene Mutations
• Insertion: Addition of
one DNA nucleotide.
• Deletion: Removal of
one DNA nucleotide.
 Protein THE BOY CUT HIS LIP AND ATE THE HOT DOG
Missense
Mutation THE BOY CUT HIS FIP AND ATE THE HOT DOG
Nonsense
Mutation THE BOY CUT HIS
Silent Mutation THE BOY CUT HIS LIP AND ATE THE HOT DOG
Insertion
Example THE BOY CUT HIS SLI PAN DAT ETH EHO TDO G
Deletion
Example THE BOY CUT HIS LIP ANA TET HEH OTD OG
6.9: Chromosome Mutations
• Duplication: Part of a
chromosome is repeated.
• Deletion: Fragment of a
chromosome is lost.
• Inversion: Reversing a
fragment of the original
chromosome.
 Duplication Example
• Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease
• Duplication of genes on
chromosome 17.
• High arched foot, claw feet,
confined to a wheelchair.
• Affects nerves in hands and
feet.
• No medication.
• Can be passed on from parent
to offspring.
• 1 in 3,300 people.
 Deletion Example
• cri du chat syndrome.
• Deletion on Chromosome 5.
• Mewing sounds, mental
and physical challenges.
• Normal Life Expectancy.
• 1 in 50,000 live births.
Inversion Example
• Four-Ring Syndrome
• Inversion on Chromosome 4
• Cleft palate, club feet, other
physical handicaps
• 1 in 10,000,000 live births
6.9: Chromosome Mutations
• Insertion: Removal of DNA from
one chromosome and adding it to
another.
• Translocation: Genes on one
chromosome are switched with
the genes of another
chromosome.
 Insertion Example
• Fragile X-Syndrome
• Learning disabilities,
anxiety, ADD, autism,
physical abnormalities.
• 1 in 4,000 males.
• 1 in 8,000 females.
 Translocation Effects
• Burkitt’s Lymphoma
• Occurs on chromosome
8 and 14.
• Cancer of the lymph
nodes. Found in
children.
• 60 – 80% survival rate.
• Very very Rare.
 6.10: Prokaryotic Regulation
• Operon Model:
Regulation of genes.
• 4 Main Parts:
• Regulator
• Promotor
• Operator
• Genes
Discovered in the 1960s, mostly found in prokaryotic cells.
6.10: Prokaryotic Regulation
• Promoter: Short
sequence of DNA where
RNA polymerase binds to
in order to start
transcription.
• Genes: Code for enzymes
and proteins involved in
metabolic pathways.
6.10: Prokaryotic Regulation
• Regulator Gene: Found
outside of operon.
Creates DNA-binding
protein that acts as a
repressor.
• Repressor: Protein that
stops RNA polymerase
from transcribing gene.
6.10: Prokaryotic Regulation
• Operator: Location where
repressor binds. When
repressor binds to
operator, RNA polymerase
can’t pass which halts
transcription.
6.10: Prokaryotic Regulation
• Inducible Operon:
Operon that is
normally off, but can
be turned on by the
presence of a
substrate.
• Lac operon model
• Off → On
6.10: Prokaryotic Regulation
• Lac genes that code for enzymes (lactase) that
break down the disaccharide (lactose).
6.10: Prokaryotic Regulation
• Low Lactose
• Repressor binds with
operator.
• RNA Polymerase can’t
transcribe lactase genes.
 6.10: Prokaryotic Regulation
• High Lactose
• Lactose binds with repressor,
changing it’s shape.
• Repressor unbinds with
operator.
• RNA polymerase can
transcribe genes.
• Genes make lactase, lactase
breaks down lactose.
6.10: Prokaryotic Regulation

• Repressible Operon:
Operon is usually on
unless the product is
present which turns
it off.
• Trp operon Model
• On → Off
6.10: Prokaryotic Regulation
• Trp = Tryptophan
• Tryptophan is an
essential amino acid.
• Trp genes make
proteins that make
tryptophan.
 6.10: Prokaryotic Regulation
• Low Tryptophan
• RNA polymerase binds
with promoter, produces
mRNA sequence.
• mRNA translates into
protein that make
tryptophan.
 6.10: Prokaryotic Regulation
• High Tryptophan
• Trp will bind with repressor,
changing its
structure/function.
• Repressor binds with operator
sequence stopping
transcription.
• When trp is used up, repressor
changes back allowing for RNA
polymerase to work again.
6.11: Eukaryotic Regulation
• Chromosome Structure
• Transcriptional Control
• Post transcriptional Control
• Translational Control
• Post translational Control
 6.11: Eukaryotic Regulation
• Chromosome Structure: Regulation of
RNA polymerase’s access to genes.
• Methyl groups condense DNA around
histones.
• Acetyl groups loosen DNA around
histones.
• Epigenetics: Controlling which genes
are expressed through environmental
factors without changing DNA
sequence.
 6.11: Eukaryotic Regulation
• Transcriptional Control: Regulation of
how much mRNA is produced. Most
critical, most control.
• Transcriptional Factors: Proteins
that influence the ability of RNA
Polymerase to bind. Create a
hairpin loop. TATA box promotes TF
to help transcription to start.
• Enhancer = Activators
• Silencer = Repressors
 6.11: Eukaryotic Regulation
• Post Transcriptional Control:
Processing of mRNA for protein
synthesis.
• mRNA is checked and edited in nucleus.
• Exons = Protein coding regions, Introns =
Non-protein coding regions
• Alternative Splicing: Different cells can
regulate which exons will be translated
which will alter protein structure and
function. Spliceosome cuts out Introns.
• Size of mRNA affects speed at which it
leaves the nuclear pores.
• 5’ cap on mRNA helps mRNA attach to
ribosome. Poly-A tail: makes the RNA
molecule more stable and prevents its
degradation
 6.11: Eukaryotic Regulation
• Translational Control:
Regulation of protein synthesis.
• RNAi (interference): Enzymes
and RNA interferer/degrade
RNA.
• Lifespan of mRNA: Shorter in
prokaryotes, longer in
eukaryotes.
 6.11: Eukaryotic Regulation
• Post Translational: Regulation
after protein has been produced.
• Proteins modify the structure and
function of protein. (Ex: Chaperone
proteins, phosphorylation, etc.)
• Ubiquitin: Marker protein that
targets proteins for degradation.
• Proteasome: Massive structure that
breaks down marked proteins. Uses
enzyme called protease.
 Genomics

• Genome: The complete

set of genetic material in
an organism.
• Each cell has complete
genome in each cell.
Genomics

• Humans
• 46 Chromosomes
• Genome: 3.2 billion
base pairs.
• Between 20,000-
25,000 genes.
Genomics

•2% is protein
producing.
•98% non-protein
coding DNA.
 Restriction Enzymes
• Restriction Enzyme: Enzyme
that binds with a specific
sequence of DNA and
cleaves the DNA in a specific
manner.
 Restriction Enzymes
• Sticky End: One strand is
longer than the other.
Allows for ends to easily
rebind.
• Blunt End: Both strands are
of equal length, difficult to
rebind.
Plasmids
• Plasmids: Small circular DNA found in
prokaryotes.
Recombinant DNA
• Beneficial gene from one
organism is cut out using
restriction enzymes.
• Plasmid is cut, gene is
inserted.
Bacterial Transformation
• Process of taking a
gene/plasmid from one
bacteria and transferring
it to another bacteria.
New protein is produced
in bacteria.
Polymerase Chain Reaction
• Small amounts of DNA are
copied multiple times.
• Mimics DNA Replication.
• DNA samples are heated and
cooled along with enzymes
for replication.
• Billions of copies can be
made within a few hours.
• First created in 1985.
 Gel Electrophoresis
• Gel electrophoresis is a
laboratory method used
to separate mixtures of
DNA, RNA, or proteins
according to molecular
size.
 Gel Electrophoresis
• DNA is cut using restriction
enzymes.
• DNA fragments are added
to wells in plate.
• Electrical current separates
DNA.
• DNA is negatively charged.
 ←Well
Gel Electrophoresis Largest
→
• Shorter fragments travel
further.
• Longer fragments don’t travel Least →
as far.
• More DNA = Thicker Band Most →
• Less DNA = Thinner Band
Smallest
→
Gel Electrophoresis
• Size Standard or
ladder shows pre-
known fragment
lengths.
 DNA Fingerprinting
• Short Tandem Repeat
(STR): Short sequences
(2 to 9 bases) of DNA
that repeat several
times.
• Example: TCGTCGTCG
 DNA Fingerprinting
• Variable Number
Tandem Repeats (VNTR):
Longer repeats, around
10 to 100 bases long.
 DNA Fingerprinting
• Discovered in 1984.
• Major tool in forensics, will be
replaced with genome sequencing.
• STRs and VNTRs between genes
are different between each person.
• Comparison of repeats can
statistically link two samples
together.
DNA Fingerprinting Problem

Which suspect matches

the DNA from the
crime scene?
 DNA Fingerprinting
• Offspring from parents
will inherit mix of
parent’s STRs and
VNTRs.
DNA Fingerprinting Problem
Who is the likely father?
 Gene Therapy
• Uses viral vector (viruses with
normal functioning DNA) to
insert DNA into cell with
miss-functioning gene.
• Vector gets into cell, inserts
gene and enzymes to cut DNA
to insert functioning gene.
• Can change or turn off
problem genes as well.
 CRISPR/CAS9
• Clustered Regularly-
Interspaced Short Palindromic
Repeats: Short segments of
DNA (20-40 bases)
• CAS Genes make CAS
proteins. These proteins cut
and glue DNA back together.
• CAS Proteins use CRISPR RNA
to mutate host DNA.
 GMOs
• GMO: Genetically Modified
Organism.
• Genes from another organism are
inserted into a different species
producing beneficial traits.
 Golden Rice
• Genetically modified type of
rice that has a gene inserted
to produce rice with high
levels of Vitamin A.
• Now being used to combat
disease in parts of Asia where
there are high levels of
Vitamin A deficiencies.
• 1,000s of children go blind
each year.
 Bt Corn
• 40 million tons of corn become
unusable due to damage from
insects.
• Gene for toxin production found in
the bacterium
Bacillusthuringiensis (Bt) is lethal to
many insects.
• Crops that are modified with the Bt
gene have a proven resistance to
insect pests, thus reducing the
need for wide-scale spraying of
synthetic pesticides.
Benefits from GMOs
• Crop yield production drastically increases.
• World population always increasing, decreases food prices.
• Nutritional value of crops also increases
• 1 in 8 suffer from hunger and malnutrition.
• Development of crops that are resistant to Drought,
Flood, Frost, Disease.
• Increased crop yields, decrease use of pesticides due to
resistant crops.
Negatives from GMOs
• GM companies regulate the prices of their GM crops.
• Monopolies on GM crops make it difficult on smaller
farms.
• May harm non-threating insects.
• Certain GM crops are meant to kill off pests, not native
non-harmful species.
• Decrease in biodiversity of local environments.
• Hurts native plants, disrupts ecosystems.
 STEM Cells
• STEM Cells: Unspecialized cell that
can reproduce itself and
differentiate into different
specialized cells.
 DNA Cloning
• Cloning: Genetically
identical organisms are
produced when scientists
replace the nucleus of an
egg with the mature
nucleus of another
organism.
“Dolly” was the first vertebrae cloned
 Telomeres
• Telomeres: Ends of the
chromosome.
Repeated segments of
DNA that don’t code
for any proteins.
 Telomeres
• Telomeres help
regulate cell life span.
• Longer telomeres =
longer life.
• Telomerase adds
telomeres.
Vaccines
• Biological preparation that
improves immunity to a particular
disease.
• Typically use dead or weakened
virus.
• Stimulates body’s immune system
to create antibodies.
• Antibodies fight off viruses.
mRNA Vaccine
• mRNA vaccine introduces mRNA
that codes for spike proteins.
• Body makes spike protein of
Corona virus.
• Immune system learns how to
make antibodies that fight virus.
• Person builds immunity towards
virus.
Misinformation about Vaccines
• “The vaccine will change your DNA.”
• That’s not how DNA/RNA work!
• “Vaccines cause autism”
• No scientific evidence supports this claim.
• Countless studies support there is NO link between vaccines and autism.
• “The flu vaccine made me sick.”
• No scientific evidence supports this claim.
• Although vaccines do initiate the immune response, vaccines CAN’T make you sick.
• “There are serious side effects for people who get vaccines.”
• No scientific evidence supports this claim.
• Correlation does not equal causation.
• “Vaccines contain toxins.”
• No scientific evidence supports this claim.
• Substances found in vaccines are at safe levels.