Web Development and Database

Model Data Object

Unit One: Conceptual data model
1.1. Analysis of business data operations
1. Understanding Business operations
2. Analyzing Business operations
3. Major Data Analysis methods
 1. Understanding Business operations
Business operations
are those ongoing cyclic activities involved in the running
of a business for the purpose of producing value.
 is the harvesting of value from assets owned by a
business.
Assets can be either tangible (physical) or intangible.
An example of value derived from a physical asset like a
building is rent.
An example of value derived from an intangible asset like
an idea is a royalty.
 Business operations encompasses three
fundamental management imperatives

1. Generate Recurring Income

2. Increase The Value Of The Business Assets
3. Secure The Income And Value Of The
Business
2. Analyzing Business operations
Operational analysis
 Is a business approach that is used to
understand and develop operational processes.
Is a technique of probing into the present and
past performance of an operational investment.
Is measures the performance against particular
standard costs, operations and services.
Is also considers how goals can be achieved in a
better way, how cost effectively they can be
achieved.
Operational analysis answers the questions
related to the areas of:-
1.Customer Results
2.Strategic and Business Results
3.Financial Performance
4.Innovation
3. Major Data Analysis methods
I. Text Analysis
II.Statistical Analysis
III.Diagnostic Analysis
IV.Predictive Analysis
V.Prescriptive Analysis
1. Text Analysis
is also referred to as Data Mining.
is one of the methods of data analysis to discover a pattern in large
data sets using databases or data mining tools.
2. Statistical Analysis
includes collection, Analysis, interpretation, presentation,
and modeling of data.
It analyses a set of data or a sample of data.
3. Diagnostic Analysis
Show by finding the cause from the insight found in
Statistical Analysis.
Analysis is useful to identify behavior patterns of data.
4. Predictive Analysis
 show by using previous data.
5. Prescriptive Analysis
combines the insight from all previous
Analysis to determine which action to take
in a current problem or decision.
are not enough to improve data
performance.
1.2. Scope of the system
Define the System Scope
The scope statement/identification defines what the
system/project will and will not include, in enough
detail to clearly communicate to all participants.
The scope must be a complete definition
encompassing all types of requirements:-
 Functional Requirement
 Non-functional Requirement
 Pseudo Requirement
The conceptual or scoping model defines the
boundaries of the system (i.e., what is in scope and
what is out of scope).
Scope Identifies:-
Events outside the system that cause the system to react.
Actors outside the system that interact with the system.
Information that flows between the system and the
actors outside the system.
Major functions included in the system.
User population.
I. Clarify System Boundaries
In addition to the scope, it is important that the system
boundaries are clearly understood.
The boundaries identify where the system to be sized starts
and ends.
A scope of a system is identified based on the following:-
 Databases
 Applications
 Servers
 Operating systems
 Gateways
 Application service provider and
 ISP (Internet service provider)
1.3. Entities, attributes, data types and relationships
of data
A. Entity
Is an existing or real thing.
Is fact that something exists also seems to indicate
separateness from other existences or entities.
In relation to a database , an entity is a single
person, place, or thing about which data can be
stored.
Ex. School, Student, Course, Department,
Employee, University.
In data modeling (a first step in the creation of
a database), an entity is some unit of data that
can be classified and have stated relationships
to other entities.
Are abstract concepts, each representing
one/more instances of a concept.
Considered as container that holds all
instances of a particular thing in a system.
Entities are equivalent to database tables in a
relational database, with each row of the table
representing an instance of that entity.
The diagram below has an entity for “student” and
“school.”
This indicates that the system being modeled may
contain one or more students and one or more schools.
Entities
Entity type
allows for distinction between the way records are
viewed and linked.
is a collection of entity instances sharing similar
properties.
Two entity type instances are considered equal only
if they are of the same type and the values of their
entity keys are the same.
is the fundamental building block for describing
the structure of data with the Entity Data Model
(EDM).
Example: The diagram below shows a conceptual model with three
entity types: Book, Publisher, and Author:-
Conceptual model
Entity Set
is set of entities of the same type.
is a logical container for instances of an entity type and
instances of any type derived from that entity type.
The relationship between an entity type and an entity set is
analogous to the relationship between a row and a table in
a relational database:
Like a row, an entity type describes data structure, and,
Like a table, an entity set contains instances of a given structure.
provides a construct for a hosting or storage environment
(such as the common language runtime or an SQL Server
database) to group entity type instances so that they can be
mapped to a datastore.
Customer: the set of all people having an account at the bank.
Attributes are ID, name, Gender, Gender and Phone-number.
Employee: with attributes emp-id, name, phone-number, gender and age.
Classification of Entity:
a. Strong Entity: An entity set that has primary key.
b. Weak Entity: an entity set that does not have
sufficient attributes to form a primary key.
c. Recursive Entity: is one in which a relation
can exist between occurrences of the same
entity set.
d. Composite Entities: Many to Many
relationship exist we must create a bridge
entity to convert into 1 to many.
B. Attribute
• Is factor/property/characteristic that describes
an entity.
• Is database management system (DBMS), an
attribute may describe a component of the
database, such as a table or a field.
Example: (Colour: attribute of your
hair/skin/cloth) Employee’s:- name, age,
address, salary and job: attribute of Employee,
etc.
Types of Attributes
Simple attribute: consist of a single atomic value that can’t be subdivided.
For example:- age, sex etc.
Composite attribute: can be further subdivided.
E.g. ADDRESS can be subdivided into city, Sub-city, Woreda, region, House No etc.
Single valued: can have only one or a single value.
For example, a person can have only one 'date of birth', 'age', etc.
Multi-valued: can have multiple values.
For instance, a person may have multiple phone numbers, multiple degrees etc.
Stored attribute: supplies a value to the related attribute.
e.g., 'Date of birth‘.
Derived attribute: the value is derived from the stored attribute.
e.g., the value of 'AGE' can be derived by subtracting the 'Date of Birth'(DOB) from
the current date.
Complex Attribute: is both composite and multi valued. e.g., Phone no.
Selecting Attributes for Entities:
Significant: only attributes that are useful to the
database users.
Direct: not derived.
Non-decomposable: An attribute can contain
only single values, never lists or repeating groups.
Contain data of the same type:
For example, you would want to enter only date
values in a birthday attribute, not names or
telephone numbers.
Entity Key
Is property or a set of properties of an entity
type that are used to determine identity.
Is Value of entity key must uniquely identify
an entity type instance within an entity set.
Is properties that make up an entity key
should be chosen to guarantee uniqueness of
instances in an entity set.
Requirements of entity key:
Is No two entity keys within an entity
set can be identical.
Is must consist of a set of non-null,
immutable, primitive type properties.
Is properties that make up an entity key
can’t change.
Types of keys
1. Super/Candidate Key:
is a field or combination of fields, can act as a primary key for a table to
uniquely identify each record.
 is Every entity in relational database must have at least one candidate
key but it is possible to have two or more.
Example: social security number, employee number or driver license
number may identify an employee.
2. Primary Key:
 is an attribute or set of attributes that uniquely identifies one entity
from the other.
Is Every entity must have a primary key. I
 is a candidate key chosen as the main method of uniquely identifying a
row.
3. Alternate key -
is any candidate key which is not selected to be the primary key.
4. Foreign Key:
 references a particular attribute of an entity containing the
corresponding primary key.
are used to create relationships between tables.
For example, an employee entity with employee number as its primary
key and department entity with department number as its primary key
can be related to each other through employee number.
Therefore, employee number will be a foreign key for department and
primary key for employee.
5. Compound/Composite Key:
Is Combination of more than one column identifying records of a
table uniquely.
Key Terms
1.Conceptual Entity Relationship Diagram: The highest-level view of the entity
relationship diagram, which contains little detail and is solution agnostic.
2.Logical Entity Relationship Diagram: Contains mid-level detail. Attributes
are introduced and operational, transactional, and business rules are defined in
this model.
Logical data models are associated with the solution design.
3.Physical Entity Relationship Diagram: Provides the most detail.
It can be developed for each logical model.
Is describe the database-specific implementation of the model and illustrate
non-functional requirements such as performance, concurrency, and security.
4.Database: A structured collection of information. Usually organized so that
data can be easily stored to allow for prompt research, retrieval, and updating.
5.Adjective: Attributes that describe or provide details about the entity.
6.Noun (common or proper): Entity type of person, object, concept, or event
7.Verb: Relationship types between entities such as enroll.
C. Data Types
 refer to the format of data storage that can hold a distinct type or range of
values.
1. Integer
 is a whole number that can have a positive, negative or zero value.
 It cannot be a fraction nor can have decimal places.
2. Character
refers to any number, letter, space or symbol that can be entered in a
computer.
occupies one byte of space.
3. String
 is used to represent text.
 is composed of a set of characters that can have spaces and numbers.
 is enclosed in quotation marks to identify the data as string and not a variable
4. Floating Point Number
is a number that contains decimals.
Numbers that contain fractions.
5. Array
contains a group of elements which can be of the same data type like an
integer or string.
It is used to organize data for easier sorting and searching of related set of
values.
6. Varchar
 as the name implies is variable character as the memory storage has variable
length.
7. Boolean
is used for creating true or false statements.
To compare values the following operators are being used: AND, OR, XOR,
and NOT.
D. Relationship
is an association between entities, captures how entities are
related to one another.
can be thought of as verbs, linking two or more nouns.
is how the data is shared between entities.
Are represented by lines between entities, lines indicate that each
instance of an entity may have a relationship with instances of the
connected entity, and vice versa.

Entity relation
The diagram above indicates that students may have some relationship with
schools.
In this case, one can infer that a student may attend
a school, or that a school may enroll students.

Relationship and Entity

Two related entities

An entity with an attribute

A relationship with an attribute

There are four types of relationships between entities
Cardinality: Defines the numerical attributes of the relationship
between two entities or entity sets.
1. One-to-one (1:1): one instance of an entity (A) is associated with
one other instance of another entity (B).
For example, in a database of employees, each employee name (A) is
associated with only one social security number (B).
2. One-to-many (1: N)
Any one entity instance from the primary entity can be referenced by
many entity instances from the related entity.
One instance of an entity (A) is associated with zero, one or many
instances of another entity (B), but for one instance of entity B there is
only one instance of entity (A).
3. Many-to-one (N: 1)
Many entity instances from the related entity can reference any one
entity instance from the primary entity.
4. Many-to-many (N: N)
 users relate one or more entity instances from another entity to an
entity instance of the current entity.
 is reciprocal.
One instance of an entity (A) is associated with one, zero or many
instances of another entity (B), and one instance of entity B is
associated with one, zero or many instances of entity A.
1.4. Business rule
is a rule of a business, company, or corporation that
defines or constrains some aspect of business and always
resolves to either true or false.
is a statement that defines or constrains some aspect of
the business, intended to assert business structure, to
control/influence behavior of the business.
Describes the operations, definitions and constraints
that apply to an organization.
Tells an organization what it can do in detail, provides
detailed guidance about how a strategy can be translated
to action.
Can apply to people, processes, corporate behavior and
computing systems in an organization, and are put in
place to help the organization achieve its goals.
While a business rule may be informal or even
unwritten, writing the rules down clearly and making
sure that they don't conflict, is a valuable activity.
When carefully managed, rules can be used to help the
organization to better achieve goals, remove obstacles,
reduce costly mistakes, improve communication,
comply with legal requirements, and increase customer
loyalty.
Example: rent rules, payment rules, service rules,
attendance rules, product rules, etc.
Categories of business rules
1.Definitions of business terms
2.Facts relating terms to each other
3.Constraints ("action assertions")
4.Derivations
1.5. Documentation of entity relationship diagram
1. A Data Model
provides the details of information to be stored, and is of primary use when
the final product is the generation of computer software for an application.
is an abstract model that documents and organizes the business data for
communication between team members and is used as a plan for
developing applications, specifically how data are stored and accessed.
is a way finding tool for both business and IT professionals, which uses a
set of symbols and text to precisely explain a subset of real information to
improve communication within the organization and thereby lead to a more
flexible and stable application environment.
Typical applications of data models include database
models, design of information systems and enabling
exchange of data.
2. Entity – Relationship Diagram (ERD)

is a type of flowchart that helps you clearly visualize your

database design by showing how the "entities" in the system
relate to one another.

In the diagram, the elements inside rectangles are called

entities.
the items inside diamonds denote the relationships between
entities.
3. Entity relation diagram symbols
4. ER Diagrams Usage
ER is able to describe just about any system.
ER diagrams are most often associated with complex databases that are
used in software engineering and IT networks.

In the diagram, the information inside the oval shapes is attributes of a

particular entity.
There are three basic elements in an ER Diagram: entity,
attribute, relationship.
Entity: can be a person, place, event, or object that is relevant to a given
system.
For example, a school system may include students, teachers, major
courses, subjects, fees, and other items.
Represented in ERD by a rectangle and named using singular nouns.
Weak Entity: is an entity that depends on the existence of another
entity.
Example: The order item will be meaningless without an order so it
depends on the existence of order.
Attribute
 is a property, trait, or characteristic of an entity, relationship, or
another attribute.
 are represented by oval shapes.
(For example: a student entity may have attributes such as Name, Roll
no and Age).
Composite attributes:
attributes having their own specific attributes.
For example: the attribute “customer address” can have the attributes
number, street, city, and state.
Multi-valued Attribute:
If an attribute can have more than one value.
For example, a teacher entity can have multiple subject values.

Derived Attribute: An attribute based on another attribute, found rarely

in ER diagrams.
For example, for a circle the area can be derived from the radius.
Relationship:
 describes how entities interact.
For example, the entity “carpenter” may be related to the entity “table”
by the relationship “builds” or “makes”.
Relationships are represented by diamond shapes and are labeled using
verbs.

Recursive Relationship: If the same entity participates more than once

in a relationship it is known as recursive relationship.
Example an employee can be a supervisor and be supervised, so there is
a recursive relationship.
Install Microsoft Visio 2010
Steps in designing the diagram:
Step 1: Before installing Microsoft Visio 2010
make sure your PC meets minimum system
requirements.
Operating System: Windows 7or above.
Memory (RAM): 256MB of RAM or above.
Hard Disk Space: 2GB of RAM or above.
Processor: 500MHz processor or faster.
Microsoft Visio 2010 software installation
Step 2: Open installation media in new window and
right click on setup file to run it “As Administrator”.
Step 3: Accept terms
Accept the terms of the agreement and continue .
Step 4: choose install now option if you have no prior
version of Microsoft visio or customize if you have
previous version.
Step 5: After the installation progress is finished
you can start designing your ER diagram
Data Modeling
To identify entities, attributes and relationships
and perform data modeling properly.
Step: - 1.
1. Click on start button -> All program-
>Microsoft office->Microsoft Visio->File-
>New->Software Database->Database Model
Diagram (US units)->select Entity under shape.
Step - 2. Add table and columns
Click on Entity shape “Table1” click on Physical Name and rename to table
name
Eg. “Employee”

To add column click on “columns”

under categories and assign physical
name and data types and other
constraints such as (primary key and
foreign keys)
 Database schema
Employee Table
Column_name Data type Size Constraints Key

Empid Char 10 Not null Primary key

FullName Char 50

Sex Char 10

Address Char 5
To change the size of data type of employee
“FullName” from default one (10) to 50 please
Click on Data type of required data (Full
Name)Editselect data type Length then write
number of sizeok
Also we can add columns as the below
procedures
To set primary key
Click on primary ID under categories
step- 3 Add related table and identify
cardinality ratios
Column name Data Size Constraints Key
type
DeptID Char 10 Not null Primary
key
DeptName Char 50

EmpID Char 10 Foreign

key
To create relationship between both Employee and
Department
Select relationship under shape
To check cardinality ratios
Click on Arrow between both tablesclick on
Name under categories to set relationship which is
by (word)
To check cardinality ratios
Click on Miscellaneous 
Step-4 To add necessary information under
relation such as (words, cardinality ratios) follow
the following procedures.
Select Database (from menu
bar)OptionDocumentRelationshipOk
The output of the procedure is looks like the
below figure.
Design ER diagram
To draw a simple ER diagram for Mobile network
registration by identifying entities, attributes with
their relationships.
Steps in designing the diagram:
Step 1: The first step in designing ERD is to start
by identifying what’s in your system or
architecture.
The possible entities when in designing a mobile
network registration is a customer, a mobile
network, bill and login.
Step 2: Consider or identify the
attributes that you need to describe
each entity.draw them inside ovals.
Connect these to the relevant
entity and position your attributes
to the outside of your diagram,
which leaves room for
Step 3: Think through the
relationships or verbs taking
place within the system.
customer purchases the phone.
The cell service maintains the
phone. The cell service creates a
bill. The customer pays the bill.
Step 4: Final step for this simple
ER diagram is to define the amount
of data that will come from each
entity. Your customer can purchase
one or many phones. The cell
service maintains many phones.
The customer pays one bill.
Unit Two: Normalization
is a technique for producing a set of relations with
desirable properties, given the data requirements of
an enterprise.
Database designed based on ER model may have
some amount of inconsistency, ambiguity and
redundancy.
To resolve these issues, some amount of refinement
is required.
The process of normalization is a formal method
Primarily it is a tool to validate and
improve a logical design so that it
satisfies certain constraints that avoid
unnecessary redundancy of data.
is the process of decomposing
relations with anomalies to produce
smaller, well-structured relations and
helps eliminate data
anomalies/problems .
Benefits of database normalization
Reduced usage of storage space by intelligently
categorizing data.
It enables better, faster, stronger searches as it entails
fewer entities to scan in comparison with the earlier
searches based on mixed entities.
Improves data integrity: it splits all the data into
individual entities yet building strong linkages with the
related data.
More efficient database structure.
Better understanding of data.
More flexible database structure.
Easier to maintain database structure.
Few (if any) costly surprises down the
road.
Validates your common sense and intuition.
Avoids redundant fields.
Ensures that distinct tables exist when
necessary
Anomalies in Normalization

refer to inconsistencies or issues

that can occur in a database when it
is not properly normalized.
can affect data integrity, accuracy,
and the ability to perform efficient
data operations.
There are three main types of anomalies that can occur:

1.Insertion Anomaly
2.Update Anomaly
3.Deletion Anomaly
Insertion Anomaly
is not possible to insert a new
record into a table without including
additional, unrelated data.
occurs when a table has attributes
that are functionally dependent on
only a part of the primary key.
Update Anomaly
modifying data in a table leads to
inconsistencies or redundant updates
in other parts of the table.
happens when a table has
redundant data or dependencies
between non-key attributes.
Deletion Anomaly
occurs when removing data from a table
unintentionally removes other related
data that should have been preserved.
Happens when a table has dependencies
between attributes, and removing data
leads to the loss of other necessary data.
Normalization stages
1. 1NF - First normal form
2. 2NF - Second normal form
3. 3NF - Third normal form
3.5NF - Boyce Codd Normal Form (BCNF)
4. 4NF - Fourth normal form
5. 5NF - Fifth normal form
The Normal Forms
The database community has developed a series of guidelines
for ensuring that databases are normalized.
These are referred to as normal forms and are numbered from
one (the lowest form of normalization, referred to as First
normal form or 1NF) through five (fifth normal form or 5NF).
I.First normal form (1NF):Eliminating Repeating Groups.
In order to perform first normalization rule:
1. Eliminate duplicative columns from the same table.
2. Create separate tables for each group of related data and
identify each row with a unique column or set of columns
(theprimary key).
3. Eliminate composite attributes.
Example 1: Develop 1NF of the following table
Student Details Course Details Result details

1001 Ram 11/09/1986 M4 Basic Math’s 7 11/11/2004 89 A

1002 Shyam 12/08/1987 M4 Basic Math’s 7 11/11/2004 78 B

1001 Ram 23/06/1987 H6 4 11/11/2004 87 A

1003 Sita 16/07/1985 C3 Basic Chemistry 11 11/11/2004 90 A

1004 Gita 24/09/1988 B3 8 11/11/2004 78 B

1002 Shyam 23/06/1988 P3 Basic Physics 13 11/11/2004 67 C

1005 Sunita 14/09/1987 P3 Basic Physics 13 11/11/2004 78 B

1003 Sita 23/10/1987 B4 5 11/11/2004 67 C

1005 Sunita 13/03/1990 H6 4 11/11/2004 56 D

1004 Gita 21/08/1987 M4 Basic Math’s 7 11/11/2004 78 B

The above table Student Details, Course Details and Result Details can be further
divided.

Student Details attribute is divided

into Student#(Student Number), Student
Name and date of birth.
Course Details is divided into
Course#, Course Name and duration.
Results attribute is divided into Date
of exam, Marks and Grade.
II.Second normal form (2NF): Eliminating Redundant
Data or remove all the partial dependencies.
requires that all non-key columns are fully dependent on
the entire primary key.
In order to perform first normalization rule.
Meet all the requirements of the first normal form
and remove subsets of data that apply to multiple rows
of a table and place them in separate tables.
Create relationships between these new tables
and their predecessors through the use of foreign
keys.
To make this table 2NF compliant, we have to
remove all the partial dependencies.
Student Name and Date ofBirth depends only on
student#.
CourseName, Pre-Requisite and DurationInDays
depends only on Course#
Date ofExam depends only on Course#.
To remove this partial dependency, we need to
split Student_Course_Result table into four
separate tables, STUDENT, COURSE, RESULT
and EXAM_DATE.
STUDENT TABLE
Student # Student Name DateofBirth
1001 Ram Some value
1002 Shyam Some value
1003 Sita Some value
1004 Geeta Some value
1005 Sunita Some value
COURSE TABLE
Course# CourseName Duration of days
C3 Bio Chemistry 3
B3 Botany 8
P3 Nuclear Physics 1
M4 Applied Mathematics 4
H6 American History 5
B4 Zoology 9
RESULT TABLE
Student# Course# Marks Grade
1001 M4 89 A
1002 M4 78 B
1001 H6 87 A
1003 C3 90 A
1004 B3 78 B
1002 P3 67 C
1005 P3 78 B
1003 B4 67 C
1005 H6 56 D
1004 M4 78 B
EXAM DATE Table
Course# DateOfExam
M4 Some value
H6 Some value
C3 Some value
B3 Some value
P3 Some value
B4 Some value
III.Third normal form (3NF): Eliminating Columns
Not Dependent on Keys or no transitive dependencie.
where one column depends on another column which depends
on the primary key.
In order to perform first normalization rule.
Meet all the requirements of the second normal form.
Remove columns that are not dependent upon the primary
key.
No transitive dependency exists between non-key
attributes and key attributes.
Example 3:In the above RESULT table
Student# and Course# are the key attributes.
All other attributes, except grade are non-
partially, non-transitively dependent on key
attributes. The grade attribute is dependent on
“Marks “, and in turn “Marks” is dependent
on #Student#Course.
To bring the table in 3NF, we need to take off
this transitive dependency.
Student# Course# Marks
1001 M4 89
1002 M4 78
1001 H6 87
1003 C3 90
1004 B3 78
1002 P3 67
1005 P3 78
1003 B4 67
1005 H6 56
1004 M4 78
UpperBound LowerBound Grade
100 95 A+
94 90 A
89 85 B+
84 80 B
79 75 B-
74 70 C
69 65 C-
After normalizing tables to 3NF, we got rid
of all the anomalies and inconsistencies. Now
we can add new grade systems, update the
existing one and delete the unwanted ones.
Hence the Third Normal form is the most
optimal normal form and 99% of the
databases which require efficiency in
INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE
Operations are designed in this normal form.
IV.Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF or 3.5NF)
The Boyce-Codd Normal form, also referred to as
the "third and half (3.5) normal form", adds one more
requirement:
Meet all the requirements of the third normal form.
Every determinant must be a candidate key.
Boyce Codd Normal Form (BCNF) is a further
refinement of 3NF. A row is in Boyce Codd normal
form if and only if every determinant is a candidate
key.
Most entities in 3NF are already in BCNF.
V.Fourth Normal Form (4NF)
Fourth normal form (4NF) has one additional
requirement:
Meet all the requirements of the third normal form.
A relation is in 4NF if it has no multi-valued
dependencies.
An entity is in Fourth Normal Form (4NF) if and
only if it is in 3NF and has no multiple sets of multi-
valued dependencies. In other words, 4NF states that
no entity can have more than a single one-to-many
relationship within an entity if the one-to-many
attributes are independent of each other.
VI.Fifth Normal Form (5NF)
5NF specifies that every join dependency for the entity must be a
consequence of its candidate keys.