Teaching

language skills
 Popular
methodology
 Approach
Approach is used to refer to theories about what language is and how it can be learnt ( the
theory of language and he theory of learning )|
The approach gives justification for the way of teaching something , which classroom activities
or techniques to be used to help learners learn .
An approach describes how language is used and how the language parts interconnect
An approach also describes how people acquire their knowledge of the language .

In other words, an approach to language teaching describes:

1. The nature of language,
2. How knowledge of a language is acquired,
3. And the conditions that promote language acquisition.
 Approach
Example of approaches :
The Direct Method.,
Grammar-Translation,
Audio-Lingual,
The Structural Approach,
Total Physical Response (TPR),
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT),
Task-based language learning.,
The Natural Approach

Communicative language teaching (CLT), or the communicative approach (CA), is an

approach to language teaching that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal
of study
 Method
A method is a practical implementation of an approach.
A theory is put into practice at the level a method.
It includes decisions about:
The particular skills to be taught,
The roles of the teacher and the learner in language teaching and learning,
The appropriate procedures and techniques,
The content to be taught,
And the order in which the content will be presented.

It also involves a specific syllabus organization, choices of the materials that will boost learning, and the
means to assess learners and evaluate teaching and learning. It is a sort of an organizing plan that relies
on the philosophical premises of an approach.

A language teaching method is a single set of procedures which teachers are to follow in the
classroom. Methods are usually based on a set of beliefs about the nature of language and
learning.' Nunan
 Procedure
Jeremy Harmer (2001) describes ‘procedures’ as “an ordered set of techniques.” They are the step-by-
step measures to execute a method.

A common procedure in the grammar-translation method, for example, is to start by explaining the
grammar rules and exemplifying these rules through sentences that the students then had to translate
into their mother tongue.

According to Harmer, a procedure is “smaller than a method and larger than a technique.”
 Technique
They are the actual moment-to-moment classroom steps that lead to a specified outcome.

Every procedure is realized through a series of techniques.

They could take the form of an exercise or just any activity that you have to do to complete a task.

For instance, when using videos, teachers often use a technique called “silent viewing” which consists of
playing the video without sound and asking students to figure out what the characters were saying
 Grammar -translation
● In this approach, classes are taught in the students' mother tongue, with little active use of the
target language.
● Vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists.
● Elaborate explanations of grammar are always provided.
● Grammar instruction provides the rules for putting words together; instruction focuses on the
form and inflection of words.
● Little attention is paid to the content of texts.
● Drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the
mother tongue, and vice versa.
● Little or no attention is given to pronunciation or oral use of language .
 Grammar -translation
Typical lesson consisted of
a) presentation of grammatical rule,
b) specially written text that demonstrated the rule,
c) list of new words,
d) translation exercises,
e) grammar exercises.

Emphasis on learning to read and write.

Vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words
 Direct Method
This approach was developed initially as a reaction to the grammar-translation approach in an
attempt to integrate more use of the target language in instruction.

● The mother tongue is NEVER used. There is no translation.

● Lessons begin with a dialogue using a modern conversational style in the target language.
● Material is first presented orally with actions or pictures.
● The preferred type of exercise is a series of questions in the target language based on the dialogue
or an anecdotal narrative.
● Communication skills were organized around question-answer exchanges between teachers and
students.
● Speech and listening comprehension were taught.
● Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasised.
 Direct Method
● Grammar is taught inductively--rules are generalized from the practice and experience with the
target language.
● Verbs are used first and systematically conjugated much later after some oral mastery of the target
language.
● Advanced students read literature for comprehension and pleasure.
● Literary texts are not analyzed grammatically.
● The culture associated with the target language is also taught inductively.
● Culture is considered an important aspect of learning the language.
 Direct Method
Technique :

Reading a loud
Question and answer exercises
Getting students to self correct
Conversation practice
Fill in the blanks
Dictation
Map drawing
Paragraph writing
 Audiolingualism
This approach is influenced by structuralism and behaviourism and became popular in the 1920s and
1930s direct method shifts, especially in the USA , into the audiolingual method. It is known by
“The Army Method” (an oral-based approach to language learning).
This method emphasized the continuous process of such positive reinforcement, to produce good habits
in language learners.

● Heightened the need to become orally proficient.

● Identify the grammatical structures and the basic sentence patterns.
● Practice these patterns by systematic attention to pronunciation and intensive oral drilling
 Audiolingualism
● New material is presented in dialogue form.
● There is dependency on mimicry, memorization of set phrases, and overlearning.
● By constant repetition the learner develops habits. Language learning is seen as acquiring a set of
appropriate mechanical habits; errors are not accepted because the lead to the development of bad
habits.
● The role of the teacher is to develop good language habits.
● There is little or no grammatical explanation. Grammar is taught inductively.
● Great importance is attached to pronunciation.
● Very little use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted.
● Successful responses are reinforced.
● There is great effort to get students to produce error-free utterances.
 Audiolingualism
Typical audio lingual activities

● Dialog memorization.
● Repetition drill: Students repeat the teacher’s model as accurately and as quickly as possible to
learn the lines of the dialog.
● Transformation drill: The teacher gives students a certain kind of sentence pattern. Students are
asked to transform a sentence into a negative sentence.
● Question-and-answer drill: This drill gives students practice with answering questions
● Complete the dialog: Selected words are erased from a dialog. Students complete the dialog by
filling the blanks with the missing words.
e.g. Lucy: I hear Mary got the first prize in that painting competition.
Rose: …
Lucy: Did she really?
Rose: Yes she did. I saw her painting and it really was good.
 Audiolingualism
● The teaching stayed at the sentence level, and there was little emphasis on the use of language in
real-life context
● The purpose was habit formation through repetition of correct utterances, encouraged and supported
by positive reinforcement through the teacher’s praise – because the drill continues – that the
student has got it right.
● When students are really concentrating on a drill, their practice will certainly be ‘deliberate’ but
whether it will be meaningful and mindful is quite another.
● The major objective of language teaching should be for students to acquire the structural patterns;
students will learn vocabulary afterward(New vocabulary is introduced through lines of the
dialogue; vocabulary is limited).
● A British variant on audiolingualism was referred to as the oral–situational approach
 Audiolingualism

What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?
•Vocabulary is kept to a minimum while the students are mastering the sound system and grammatical
patterns.
•The natural order of skills presentation is adhered to : listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
•The oral/aural skills receive most of the attention .
•
•Dealing with errors

•Students errors are to be avoided if at all possible through the teacher’s awareness of where the students
will have difficulty and restriction of what they are taught to say.
 Audiolingualism
Characteristics of the teaching/learning process

•New vocabulary and structural patterns are presented through dialogs.

•Dialogs– learning through imitation and repetition
•Positively reinforced
•Grammar is induced from the examples.
Communicative Language Teaching | Definition, Features & Examples - Lesson | Study.com
 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
This approach emerged during the 1970s and 80s, revolutionizing
language education by prioritizing real communication over
traditional grammar-centric methods. The essence of CLT involves
shifting the focus from language mechanics to understanding how
language functions in social contexts to fulfill various communicative
purposes.
Defining CLT can be complex due to its varied interpretations among
educators. It represents a wide of approaches that share a focus on
communication but are not uniformly applied or understood across
different teaching environments. Ultimately, the goal of enhancing
communicative competence in language learners remains clear,
even as the methods to achieve this can differ significantly.
Central to CLT is the emphasis on the purpose of language:
communication. Influential figures like David Wilkins highlighted the
significance of understanding the 'notions' and 'functions' of
language, such as making invitations or expressing apologies. This
approach enables learners to engage in practical language use
relevant to real-life situations
A defining feature of CLT is its focusing on meaning-focused tasks,
where students participate in communicative activities that reflect
authentic conversations. Success in these tasks is assessed not just
on grammatical correctness but on the achievement of
communicative objectives. Activities such as role-plays and
simulations became popular, as they provided opportunities for
students to practice genuine communication in the classroom
In contrast, traditional methods emphasize explicit language instruction,
repetitive exercises, and a greater focus on form than meaning. This
distinction is represented in the "communication continuum," where
traditional activities lack communicative intention and purpose, whereas
CLT activities emphasize authentic communication.
Despite the widespread acceptance of CLT, its implementation can
be inconsistent in classrooms. Many course materials have
embraced more communicative approaches, yet traditional
testing practices continue to be used, creating a tension
between the two methodologies. Some educators integrate
communicative activities as an addition to structured language
teaching rather than as foundational elements of their
approach.
Recent changes in exam design that favor communicative
assessments indicate a growing acknowledgment of the
importance of real-world language skills. However, a diverse
teaching landscape continues, where both traditional and
communicative methods coexist. Some educators propose a
synthesis of both approaches, acknowledging that traditional
techniques can enhance communicative learning when
employed effectively.
The ongoing discussion surrounding CLT and traditional methods
has led figures like Zoltán Dörnyei to advocate for a "principled
communicative approach" that emphasizes meaningful
interaction while also including attention to important
grammatical concepts and controlled practices.
 Teaching ‘Unplugged’
In 1995, a group of filmmakers, led by Danish director Lars von Trier,
created the Dogme 95 manifesto, aimed at returning films to fundamental
filmmaking values, avoiding artificial lighting and special effects. This
inspired Scott Thornbury to write a provocative article suggesting that
English Language Teaching (ELT) needed a similar revival, advocating for
classrooms free from materials and technology where language naturally
emerges through a dialogic relationship between teachers and students
(Thornbury, 2000).
He proposed this teaching approach as ‘Dogme.’ The article
garnered significant interest, leading to a group of educators keen to
adopt Dogme principles in language education.
Subsequently, Thornbury and Luke Meddings formalized this
approach as ‘teaching unplugged,’ critiquing the over-reliance on
materials and technology in language teaching. They emphasized
the need for teachers to concentrate on the actual learners and
relevant content (Meddings & Thornbury, 2009).
 Key features of Dogme ELT include:

1. Conversation-Driven: Interaction in the classroom drives

procedures, fostering dialogue not only among students but also
between students and teachers. The teacher's main role is to
support and scaffold the language that emerges, capitalizing on
spontaneous moments of opportunity.
2. Materials-Light: Dogme advocates for a minimal use of
materials, teachers must respond to the specific needs and
interests of their students instead of relying on pre-packaged
resources like course books.
3. Focus on Emergent Language: Rather than adhering to a set syllabus,
Dogme teachers prioritize the language that emerges during lessons,
treating learner errors as valuable opportunities for learning. Teachers
facilitate interactions, helping students express themselves more
accurately.
This teaching philosophy significantly contrasts with a syllabus-
driven approach to grammar and vocabulary and emphasizes
collaborative interaction, distancing itself from coursebook-centered
teaching.
However, critics have raised several concerns about Dogme principles:
- The dialogic model may favor native-speaker teachers
- Implementing this approach effectively might be challenging in large
classes.
- There is a belief that syllabuses serve as essential organizing
frameworks, and course materials like textbooks are highly valued for
various reasons .
-Teaching is more than just conversation. Effective teaching involves
various activities beyond merely talking, which is why students continue
attending classes
- conversation- driven approach seems to prioritize classroom dialogues as
the primary source of language learning, yet it lacks clarity regarding what
constitutes "conversation." It is recommended that teachers using a
conversation-focused method analyze and reflect on classroom discussions
to better understand the dynamics of the conversation .
Despite these challenges, unexpected language occurrences during
lessons often present teachers with ‘magic’ or Dogme moments,
creating ideal opportunities to highlight specific language
features and engage in tailored instructional strategies. Whether
teaching unplugged can be considered a comprehensive approach or
method beyond these moments remains uncertain.
 Task-Based Learning
Task-Based Learning (TBL), also known as Task-Based Instruction (TBI) or
Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT), is seen by David Nunan as a
direct application of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) philosophy.
He simplifies the connection by stating that while CLT addresses the
question of "why," TBLT provides answers to "how" language learning can
occur (Nunan, 2014).
Central to TBL is the emphasis on completing meaningful tasks as a key
aspect of the learning process. It is based on the belief that focusing on
tasks allows students to learn the language as effectively as if they were
concentrating on specific language forms. Dave and Jane Willis noted that
advocates of TBL reject traditional presentation methodologies,
emphasizing that language development stems from learners' efforts to use
language meaningfully (Willis & Willis, 2003).
An early example of TBL involved students engaging in pre-task activities
such as asking questions and checking vocabulary related to a problem-
solving scenario, like finding train schedule information (Prabhu, 1987). In
these activities, language use emerged from the task focus rather than
being predetermined.
In one implementation of TBL, students first complete a task, and only
afterward does the teacher discuss the language used, making necessary
corrections based on the performance during the task. This approach aligns
with what is known as the "boomerang" procedure (discussed further in
section 4.7). However, Jane Willis clarified that task-based methodology is
more complex and can be broken down into three stages:
1. Pre-Task Stage: The teacher introduces the topic, highlights useful
vocabulary, and ensures understanding of task instructions. Students may
listen to recordings of others performing similar tasks.
2. Task Cycle Stage: Students work in pairs or small groups to complete
the task while the teacher monitors. They plan how to report their findings
back to the class and present their results, potentially through oral or written
reports.
3. Language Focus Stage: Students examine specific language elements
from their task-related texts and may engage in focused practice on these
features, alongside receiving correction from the teacher.
Another example of a task might involve students preparing and delivering
a short presentation about a historical figure they choose. Initially, they
would explore examples of biographies, discuss typical content, select a
figure, and plan their presentations with teacher support for grammar and
vocabulary. After delivering their presentations, both students and the
teacher would analyze the content and address any language issues. This
repetition of tasks allows students to refine their language skills based on
feedback.
David Nunan presents a slightly different perspective on task sequencing,
starting with a pre-task to build students’ prior knowledge. He then
introduces controlled language practice related to the task before allowing
students to listen to native speakers, analyze their language use, and
engage in a final communicative activity with an emphasis on language
forms (Nunan, 2004).
In practice, TBL can vary widely depending on the interpretation of its
proponents. There is also some difficulty in defining what constitutes a
"task." Willis and Willis acknowledge that while attempts to delineate task
criteria are challenging, Samuda and Bygate propose that a task is a
holistic activity engaging language use to achieve a non-linguistic outcome
while presenting a linguistic challenge, aiming to enhance language
learning through the process and/or the product (Samuda & Bygate, 2008).
Critics of TBL have expressed concerns regarding its overall applicability.
William Littlewood highlighted the ambiguity surrounding the definition of
TBL and suggested abandoning the term (Littlewood, 2004). Paul
Seedhouse noted that typical tasks promote specific task-oriented language
forms that may not cover the diverse language needed for discussions and
social interactions. Guy Cook pointed out that language choices go beyond
transactional communication, encompassing a wide range of topics (Cook,
2000).
Michael Swan cautioned that while TBL may reinforce known language, it
may not adequately support the systematic teaching of new language items
and questioned the appropriateness of tasks in time-constrained
environments. Penny Ur described the need to prioritize the rapid learning
of essential vocabulary in her limited lesson context while recognizing the
value of communicative tasks as part of a structured language curriculum
(Ur, 2006).
Ultimately, much like Communicative Language Teaching, TBL represents a
diverse range of perspectives, with proponents united in their desire for
meaningful language engagement. In its ideal form, task-based pedagogy
posits that a curriculum should center on tasks from which learning
emerges, as opposed to following a strictly predefined sequence of
language forms. Though its attractive claims may sometimes resemble
hypotheses, there is no denying that engaging students in meaningful tasks
benefits language processing and provides opportunities for practicing and
receiving feedback on their language use. However, the appropriateness of
solely task-based programs remains a topic for further discussion.
 1. David Nunan’s Task Sequence (Nunan 2004)

● Nunan’s model starts with a pre-task phase to activate students’ background knowledge
(schema).

● Then, learners engage in controlled language practice, especially focusing on vocabulary

needed for the main task.

● Students listen to native speakers performing similar tasks and analyze the language used.

● Free practice of the language follows.

● Finally, students perform a pedagogical task (e.g., discussion or decision-making).

● This process represents a “focus on forms” approach leading into a task-based

communicative activity.

● Nunan emphasizes a shift from reproductive (imitative) to creative language use.

 Variability in TBL Practice

● The term Task-Based Learning (TBL) is interpreted differently by different educators and
researchers.

● There is no fixed definition of what constitutes a “task”.

● Willis & Willis (2007) acknowledge the lack of a precise definition.

● Samuda & Bygate (2008) offer a definition:

A task is a holistic activity that involves language use to achieve a non-linguistic outcome
[ not relating to words or language ] while overcoming a linguistic challenge, aiming to
promote learning through process or product (or both).

● Even this definition is seen as broad and inclusive of many activity types.
 .Criticisms and Concerns about TBL

● William Littlewood: Struggles to define TBL clearly and even suggests abandoning the
term altogether.

● Paul Seedhouse (1999):

○ Argues that tasks often produce task-specific linguistic forms.

○ These forms may not reflect natural conversation, such as debates or social
interactions.

● Guy Cook:

○ Criticizes the limited focus on work language or transactional language.

○ Notes that people also enjoy language in songs, games, humor, emotions,
religion, etc.
● Michael Swan (2005):

○ Believes TBL is good at developing existing language,

○ But less effective for teaching new language systematically.

○ Also raises concerns about time constraints in many teaching contexts.

● Penny Ur (2006):

○ As a school teacher with limited lesson time, she argues for teaching frequent and
useful language items directly.

○ Says teachers can't always wait for students to encounter them in tasks.

○ Still supports communicative tasks as a necessary component, not the whole syllabus.
 Summary of the Debate

● TBL, like Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), is seen as a “family” of related but
differing approaches.

● In its pure form, TBL suggests that:

○ Curriculum should be based on tasks.

○ Learning should emerge from tasks, not be pre-taught.

● This aligns with focus-on-form approaches (integrating form and meaning), rather than
form-first (traditional grammar teaching).

● TBL’s promises are appealing, but are sometimes hypothetical, not proven.
● It is widely agreed that meaning-focused tasks are valuable for:

○ Promoting language processing,

○ Providing opportunities for language use and feedback.

● However, whether a curriculum based solely on tasks is practical or effective

remains debatable.
 The Lexical Approach

The ongoing debate in language teaching about whether grammar or

vocabulary should take precedence has led to the development of the
lexical approach, initially discussed by Dave Willis in 1990 and popularized
by Michael Lewis in 1993 and 1997.
The Lexical Approach, promoted by Dave Willis and later by Michael
Lewis, attempts to resolve this by proposing that language is made up
largely of pre-formed word combinations—not just individual words or
grammar rules. These combinations, known as lexical chunks, include
fixed phrases, collocations, idioms, and semi-fixed expressions like
"See you later" or "I'll do my best."
The lexical approach shifts focus away from an overemphasis on
syntax and tense structures by advocating the teaching of phrases
that demonstrate word combinations. Instead of concentrating solely
on the future tense with "will," for example, students would engage
with common phrases like "I’ll give you a ring" or "I’ll see what I can
do."
According to Lewis, language fluency stems from knowing a large
number of these ready-made phrases. Learners rely on these stored
expressions to produce speech and adapt them creatively when
needed. This shifts attention away from teaching grammar structures
first and encourages presenting common word patterns and
typical expressions instead. For example, rather than teaching
future tense through grammar explanations, teachers might show
expressions like "I’ll call you" or "I’ll see what I can do."
In practice, the Lexical Approach often resembles traditional
methods. Activities might include adding adjectives or intensifiers
to fixed phrases or identifying verb-noun combinations in texts.
Lewis argues that exposure to natural language input, rather
than formal teaching, is the key to expanding a learner’s
vocabulary.
Other educators like Dellar and Walkley advocate teaching language
as naturally occurring chunks, focusing on how words typically appear
together. However, not everyone is convinced. Leo Selivan wonders
why, despite its strong theoretical foundation, the approach hasn’t
become mainstream. Critics like Michael Swan argue that memorizing
thousands of chunks takes too much time and may not be efficient. He
likens it to trying to empty the ocean with a teaspoon.
Ivor Timmis criticizes the approach for lacking clear guidelines on what
to teach and relying too much on learners noticing patterns on their own.
He suggests that instead of adopting the whole approach, teachers
could integrate a lexical “dimension” into their teaching—raising
awareness of useful word combinations and collocations.
George Woolard adds that for beginners, it’s enough to learn key phrases like “I’d
like” without breaking them down grammatically. These chunks can be analyzed
later, only when learners need to adapt or change them.

Overall, it’s now widely accepted that understanding how words group together and
recognizing lexical chunks plays a crucial role in developing language fluency, even
if the Lexical Approach is not followed strictly.
 Key Ideas of the Lexical Approach:

1. Focus on Lexis (Vocabulary):

○ The core principle is that vocabulary, or lexis, is at the heart of language

learning. Rather than treating vocabulary as secondary to grammar, it
stresses that learners should acquire collocations, idiomatic
expressions, fixed phrases, and chunks.
○ It argues that language is largely made up of these fixed patterns, and
learning these patterns helps learners sound more natural and fluent.
2. Chunks of Language:

○ Language learners should focus on learning multi-word units (chunks)

such as collocations (e.g., "make a decision"), fixed phrases (e.g., "by the
way"), and expressions commonly used in natural conversation.

○ These chunks help learners produce language more quickly and accurately,
without having to consciously think about grammar rules.
3. Grammar in Context:

○ The lexical approach does not ignore grammar, but it treats it as something
that emerges naturally when learners engage with real-world language.

○ Grammar is learned through the exposure to and use of language in

context, rather than through isolated drills or explicit instruction.
4. Fluency over Accuracy:

○ The lexical approach emphasizes fluency in communication over

grammatical accuracy.

○ Learners are encouraged to use language in meaningful ways, focusing on

expressing ideas and participating in conversations rather than obsessing
over perfect grammar.
5. Role of the Teacher:

○ The teacher’s role is to expose students to a rich variety of language input,

helping them recognize and internalize language chunks.

○ Teachers may encourage learners to notice patterns in language use, explore

authentic materials (e.g., real-world texts, conversations), and practice using
these chunks in context.
6. Language Acquisition is Mainly Lexical:

○ Language learners acquire language largely through the

memorization of frequent patterns of words.

○ Learning these patterns and the contexts in which they are used is
more effective than focusing on isolated grammatical rules.
 Criticisms of the Lexical Approach:

● Limited Focus on Grammar: Critics argue that it underemphasizes the importance of grammar,
which is still necessary for clear, correct communication.

● Not Suitable for All Learners: Some learners may need more structured, rule-based approaches
before they can fully benefit from the lexical approach.

● Contextual Variability: Not all lexical chunks are universally applicable across different contexts, and
some may need more explicit explanation or practice.
 Lexical Approach

The Central Idea: Language as Chunks, Not Just Grammar and Vocabulary

· Traditional View Challenged: The traditional view often separates grammar rules and individual
vocabulary words as the core of language.

· Lexical Approach's Core Assertion: This approach argues that a significant part of language consists
of multi-word prefabricated chunks (fixed or semi-fixed phrases).

o Example: Instead of just knowing the grammar for asking about someone's well-being and
individual words like "how," "are," and "you," we learn the whole chunk "How are you?"

· Importance of These Chunks: These chunks (lexical phrases, collocations, idioms) are crucial for
fluent language use.

o Examples: "See you later," "You must be joking," "I'll give it my best shot," "changing the
subject slightly...," "might as well," "...if it'll help."
 Key Proponents and Their Ideas

· Dave Willis (1990) and Michael Lewis (1993, 1997): They popularized the lexical approach.

· Fluency as a Result of Chunk Acquisition (Lewis): Lewis believes that fluency comes from having a large
collection of these ready-made chunks that can be used as a base for creating new sentences.

o Analogy: Think of these chunks as building blocks for more complex communication.

· Shifting Focus from Syntax to Phrases (Lewis): The lexical approach suggests moving away from
overemphasizing grammar rules and tense usage and instead focusing on teaching phrases where words appear
together.

o Traditional Grammar Focus: Teaching the rules of "will" for future tense and then introducing
vocabulary to fit those rules.

o Lexical Approach Focus: Teaching common phrases that use "will" in context, like "I'll give you a
ring," "I'll be in touch," "I'll see what I can do," "I'll be back in a minute." These show how "will" is actually
 Methodological Implications

· Activities Similar to Traditional Ones (Lewis): Some activities used in a lexical approach
might look familiar.

o Adding Intensifiers: Taking a semi-fixed expression and adding words to make it

stronger.

§ Example: "It's obvious something's gone wrong." becomes "It's quite obvious something's gone
wrong."

o Collocation Activities: Identifying words that commonly go together in a text.

§ Example: Reading a text and finding nouns like "problem" and then identifying verbs that often
collocate with it, such as "solve a problem," "face a problem," "discuss a problem."
o Word Order Exercises: Focusing on the arrangement of words within specific
phrases.

· Emphasis on Input and Acquisition (Lewis): Lewis also suggests that learners acquire a
lot of vocabulary simply through exposure to language, rather than direct teaching.

o Key Idea: Learners pick up many of these chunks by reading, listening, and
interacting in the language.
· Naturalness and Teaching Words Together (Dellar and Walkley, 2016): They highlight the
importance of teaching language in a way that reflects how it's naturally used, always presenting words
in combination with others.
 Criticisms and Challenges

· Incorporating Chunks into a Language System (Selivan's Question): Why hasn't this approach
become more mainstream despite being discussed for a long time?

· Time-Consuming Nature (Swan, 2006b): Learning thousands of fixed phrases might take a
lot of time and effort.

o Analogy: Trying to learn all possible chunks might feel like "someone trying to empty
the sea with a teaspoon."

· Lack of Clear Principles (Timmis, 2008): The lexical approach might not have clear
guidelines on what specific language chunks to teach.
· Over-Reliance on Noticing (Timmis, 2008): It might depend too much on learners
simply noticing these chunks without providing enough guidance on how to do so
effectively.

· "All Chunks But No Pineapple" (Thornbury, 1998): This catchy phrase suggests
that focusing only on chunks might miss the underlying grammatical structure ("the
pineapple" that gives the chunks meaning and allows for creativity).
 Recent Reassessment and Integration

· Generative Patterns in Lexis (Dellar and Walkley, 2015): They argue that many lexical chunks have
patterns that can be used to create new phrases.

· Adopting a "Lexical Dimension" (Timmis, 2008): Instead of a complete shift, integrating an

awareness of collocations and chunks into existing teaching practices is valuable.

· Focus on Need for Analysis (Woolard, 2013b): For beginners, it might be enough to learn a phrase
as a whole (e.g., Spanish "quisiera" = English "I'd like"). Analyzing the grammar within the chunk is
only necessary when the learner needs to change it to create new messages.

· Importance of Chunks in Fluent Production (Concluding Thought): It's now hard to imagine
effective language teaching that doesn't pay significant attention to how words group together and
doesn't help students learn these crucial chunks for fluent speaking and writing.
 These four "humanistic" methods, though perhaps not used in their pure
forms today, offer valuable insights into language teaching

1. Community Language Learning (CLL)

· Core Principle: Learning is a collaborative and supportive process, emphasizing the learner's
needs and reducing anxiety.

· Teacher's Role: A "knower" who stands outside the student circle, facilitating communication
by:

o Translating: Helping students express their intended meaning in the target language.

o Suggesting: Offering possible ways to phrase ideas.

o Amending: Correcting or refining student utterances.

· Student Focus: Students initiate what they want to say.

· Reflection: Students and the teacher discuss their feelings and experiences during
the activities.

Lasting Influence: Reminds us that teachers are facilitators of learning, helping students
express themselves and focusing on the individual learner. It also highlights the use of
translation as a tool and the importance of the learner's emotional state
2. Suggestopaedia

· Core Principle: Creating a relaxed and comfortable learning environment to lower the "affective filter" (anxiety
and negative emotions that hinder learning).

· Key Elements:

o Physical Environment: Emphasis on comfort and relaxation in the learning space.

o De-suggestopedia: Aiming to remove psychological barriers to learning.

o Infantilization: Students take on new names and a more dependent role with the teacher.

o
* Avoidance of Trauma: Sensitive topics are excluded.

o Music and Silence: Specific procedures involve listening to previously studied

dialogues with Baroque music, followed by periods of silence.

· Lasting Influence: Underscores the critical role of affect (emotions and attitudes) in
language learning and the impact of the learning environment.
3. Total Physical Response (TPR)
· Core Principle: Language learning through physical activity and responding to
commands.

· Teacher's Role: Gives commands that students physically act out.

o Examples: "Pick up the triangle from the table and give it to me." or "Walk
quickly to the door and hit it."

· Student Role: Initially, students only respond physically. They don't have to speak until
they feel ready.
· Progression: Once students understand and respond to commands, they can start giving
instructions to classmates.

· Underlying Belief: Mirrors how children learn their first language through commands.

· Lasting Influence: Highlights the value of kinaesthetic learning (learning through

movement) and the effectiveness of making lessons physically engaging. It also
acknowledges that learners need a "silent period" where they can absorb language before
being required to produce it.
· 4. The Silent Way

· Core Principle: Learner autonomy and discovery are central. The teacher speaks as little as possible,
encouraging students to actively work out the language.

· Teacher's Role: A silent facilitator who guides learning through:

o Phonemic Charts: Pointing to sounds to help students pronounce them.

o Gestures and Actions: Indicating when students should speak and providing feedback non-
verbally.
o
· Cuisenaire Rods: Using colored wooden blocks to create visual representations and solve
communication tasks.

· Student Role: Active problem-solvers who rely on each other and visual aids to
understand and produce language.

· Underlying Belief: Learning is more effective when learners discover and create
language themselves rather than just memorizing.

Lasting Influence: Emphasizes the importance of cognitive engagement and learner

independence. It shows how teachers can guide learning indirectly and encourage students to
pay close attention to the language themselves
· Overall Significance:

· Facilitation: Teachers guiding rather than dominating learning.

· Learner Needs: Addressing what students want to express.
· Affect: The impact of emotions and the learning environment.
· Physical Engagement: Incorporating movement into lessons.
· Learner Autonomy: Encouraging students to think for themselves and
discover language.
· Presentation, Practice, and Production (PPP) procedure, a common
framework in language teaching, and then introduces an alternative: Engage,
Study, Activate (ESA). Here's a breakdown of the main concepts:
· · Description: A linear, teacher-centered procedure widely used, especially at lower levels, for
introducing specific language items.

· Stages:

o Presentation: The teacher introduces a situation to provide context for the new language. The
language item (e.g., a grammar point or vocabulary) is then explicitly presented.

§ Example: Showing pictures of Meera's daily routine to introduce the present simple tense for routines.

§ Techniques: Modeling the sentence, isolating and explaining the grammar, pronunciation practice (e.g.,
distorting sounds), writing on the board.

Practice: Students practice the new language through controlled activities focusing on accurate reproduction
§ Techniques:

§ Choral Repetition: Students repeat together.

§ Individual Repetition: Individual students repeat.

§ Cue-Response Drills: Teacher gives a cue (e.g., pointing to a picture), and a nominated student
gives a specific response.

§ Pair Work: Students practice the sentences with each other.

·
Criticisms:

o Teacher-centered: The teacher controls the flow and content.

Production: Students use the new language more freely to create their own sentences.

§ Example: Students talk about their own daily routines using the present simple.

§ Personalization: Encouraging students to relate the language to themselves.

· Rationale: Assumes a linear learning process: from no knowledge to controlled practice and
then to independent use.
· o Linear Learning Assumption: Doesn't fully reflect the messy and non-linear nature of
language acquisition.

o May not reflect the nature of language or learning: Language isn't always learned in
neat, isolated chunks.

· Variations and Alternatives:

o "Deep-end Strategy" (Johnson, 1982): Starts with production, then addresses errors
through presentation or practice as needed.

o Circular Model (Byrne, 1986): Presentation, Practice, and Production are

interconnected, and teachers can start at any point.
 2. Engage, Study, Activate (ESA)

· Description: A more flexible trilogy that focuses on different aspects of the learning process.
· Stages:

o Engage (E): The teacher aims to capture students' interest and create an emotional
connection to the topic.

§ Techniques: Using pictures, situations, discussions, games.

o Study (S): Focuses on the form and meaning of the language. This can be grammar,
vocabulary, pronunciation, discourse features, etc.

§ Integration: Can be a focus-on-forms approach or emerge from a communicative task where

students notice a language gap or error.
· Activate (A): Students use all their language knowledge in communicative tasks where the
focus is on meaning rather than specific forms.

§ Techniques: Communicative tasks, role-plays, discussions, writing for a purpose, reading for
pleasure.

· Lesson Procedures Based on ESA:

o "Straight Arrows" (ESA): Similar to PPP, but with an initial engagement phase.

o "Boomerang" (EAS): Starts with an engaging activity that leads to a study phase based
on the language needs that arise, followed by further activation.

o "Patchwork": A more varied sequence, combining elements of engage, study, and

activate in different orders depending on the learning goals.
· · Rationale: Recognizes the importance of engagement and allows for a more
flexible and responsive approach to teaching. It acknowledges that study can arise from
communicative needs.

· Relationship to PPP: ESA views PPP as one possible "tool" within a broader range
of teaching procedures, particularly useful for focus-on-forms lessons at lower levels.
· Key Takeaway:

While PPP remains a common and sometimes useful framework, especially for introducing
specific language points, the ESA model offers a more flexible and student-centered
approach that emphasizes engagement and allows for study to emerge from communicative
needs. Modern language teaching often incorporates elements of both, along with other
methodologies.

This part explores the complex question of choosing a teaching method or approach in the
face of numerous options. It highlights the tendency towards eclecticism among teachers and
the shift towards a post-method perspective that emphasizes context and teacher autonomy
· The Challenge of Choice:

· Abundance of Suggestions: Teachers are faced with a wide array of methods and
approaches, making it difficult to decide which to adopt.

· Passionate Advocates: Some proponents of specific methods (like the humanistic ones)
strongly adhere to their principles.

· Prescriptive Institutions: Some language schools or chains mandate a specific "house

method," claiming it offers the best results.

· Teacher Pragmatism: Most teachers and institutions are less rigid and tend to explore
various methods.
· What Teachers Actually Do: Eclecticism

· Swan's Caution: New methods can be useful additions to a teacher's toolkit but shouldn't completely
replace existing effective practices.

· Bell's Observation: Teachers are intelligent and make informed choices rather than blindly following
methods.

· Eclecticism: The common practice of teachers "picking and choosing" techniques and ideas from different
methods.

· Sowden's Perspective: Teacher effectiveness is also influenced by personal qualities, attitudes, and

experience, which should be informed by research and best practices. 1 This allows teachers to move beyond
rigid, mechanistic approaches.

· Teacher Agency: Some teachers might simply continue teaching as they always have, potentially ignoring
· The Importance of Understanding Methods:

· Bell's Finding: Methods are not obsolete. Understanding the theories behind different
approaches helps teachers make informed decisions about their eclecticism.

· Prabhu's "Plausibility": Teachers are more likely to adopt methods or techniques that they
believe will work in their context.

· Outcome-Oriented Teaching: Teachers should have a clear idea of the intended learning
outcomes of their activities and critically evaluate whether those outcomes are being achieved.

Examples: Questioning the effectiveness of "Hangman" for spelling or "Wordsearch" without

contextual practice
· · The Need for Reflection: Teachers should constantly think about what
their students are learning and why they are using specific activities.
· Lesson Planning and Action Research: Essential tools for ensuring purposeful
teaching and understanding classroom realities.
· The "Post-Method" Era:

· Limitations of Single Methods: Sticking to one prescribed method might hinder the dynamic
learning process between teachers and students.

· "Alternative to Method" (Kumaravadivelu): Instead of seeking new methods, the focus

should shift to broader "macrostrategies" that guide teaching.

o Examples of Macrostrategies: Maximizing learning opportunities, facilitating

negotiation, fostering language awareness, contextualizing input, integrating skills, promoting
learner autonomy, ensuring social relevance.2

· Methodological Assumptions: Even these macrostrategies are not entirely neutral and reflect
certain pedagogical beliefs.
· Beyond Instructional Efficiency: Focus on Learning Culture

· Allwright's Exploratory Practice: Prioritizes the "quality of life" in the classroom over
mere instructional efficiency.

· Understanding Classroom Dynamics: Teachers should investigate and understand what

happens in their classrooms.

Identifying and Solving "Learning Puzzles": Teachers reflect on puzzling classroom events,
gather data, and experiment with solutions.
· The Significance of Context:

· Bax's Context Analysis: Emphasizes the importance of analyzing the specific learning context

before applying any method.4

· Methodology as One Factor: Recognizes that other factors beyond methodology influence learning.

· Avoiding Imposition: Teachers should be mindful of imposing their own methodological views
without considering the context.
·
· Cultural Sensitivity (Pennycook, Holliday, Maley): Language teaching is intertwined with culture.
Importing methodologies from one cultural context to another (e.g., "native speakerism" from Western
traditions) can be inappropriate and lead to student resistance.

· "Learning Our Students": Good teachers understand their students' backgrounds, expectations, and
what is appropriate for them.5

· Negotiating Learning: Creating a "bargain" or middle ground between the teacher's and students'
beliefs about learning can lead to an optimal learning zone.
· Principled Eclecticism:

· Connecting Beliefs and Practice: Good teachers examine methods in light of their own beliefs about
how people learn.

· Theoretical Foundation: Classroom activities should be based on a rationale rooted in learning

theories and the teacher's observations and experience.

· Coursebook Influence: While principled eclecticism is advocated, the coursebook often heavily
dictates classroom practice in many institutions.

In essence, this section argues for a thoughtful and context-aware approach to language teaching,
moving beyond the rigid application of specific methods towards a more eclectic and principled
integration of techniques informed by both theory and the unique needs of the learners and the learning
environment.
The Influence of Coursebooks:

· Syllabus and Methodology: Coursebooks often dictate not only what is taught
(syllabus) but also how it is taught (methodology).

· Institutional Choice: Teachers frequently have to use coursebooks chosen by their

institutions, limiting their autonomy.

· Following the Book: While adherence to the coursebook is often expected, teachers
still have agency in how they implement it.
· For and Against Coursebook Use:

· Arguments in Favor:

o Careful Preparation and Control: Offer a structured syllabus and manageable language progression.

o Attractive Presentation: Visually appealing for students.

o Lively Content: Provide engaging topics and texts.

o Revision Tool: Useful for students to review material.

o Pedagogical Artifice: Simplified or less authentic examples can be a necessary stepping stone.

o Teacher's Books: Offer guidance and activity suggestions.

o Supplementary Materials: Often include DVDs, websites with extra practice, and online tracking
tools.
· Arguments Against (Overuse):

o Imposed Learning Styles: May not suit all learners.

o Reliance on PPP: Can promote a limited teaching procedure.

o Stifled Creativity: Focus on completing the book can overshadow real communication.

o Blandness: Avoiding offense can lead to uninteresting content.

o Lack of Personal Relevance: May not align with students' current interests.

o Repetitive Format: Units often follow the same structure, which can be demotivating.

o Boring: Can lack genuine engagement.

o Outdated in the Digital Age: Static content may not compete with the dynamic resources
available online.
· · Compromise Views:

o Jumping-Off Point (Levrai): Coursebooks should primarily enable learning beyond

their pages.

o Potential Disappearance (Harrison): Digital solutions might eventually replace

traditional coursebooks.

o Current Reality: Coursebooks are still widely used, making effective selection and
use crucial.
· How to Use Coursebooks Effectively:

Teachers can adapt their approach to coursebooks in several ways:

· Omit Things That Don't Fit: Leaving out content that is inappropriate, unnecessary, not at the right
level, or uninteresting. However, this needs to be balanced with the students' investment in the book and
the content of assessments.

· Replace Things with Our Own Choices: Substituting coursebook material with more engaging or
clearer alternatives that still address the same language or skills focus. Over-replacement should be
avoided.

· Adapt and Add Things: Modifying and supplementing coursebook content to make it more
engaging and relevant for students. Examples of adaptation activities include:
· o Acting out dialogues with different characters or emotions.
o Expanding dialogues.
o Eliciting student opinions and suggestions for changes.
o Using sentences in internet searches.
o Changing gender in texts.
o Interviewing characters.
o Predicting missing information.
o Guessing exercise focuses.
o Internet research on topics.
o Student choice in exercises.
o
Creating opposite sentences.
o Reassembling jumbled words.
o Sentence creation with random words.
o Predicting text content from random words.
o Explaining sentence context.
o Drawing characters from audio.
o Choosing music for audio.
o Writing student-generated exercises.
o Summarizing texts in decreasing word counts.
o Retelling stories from different perspectives.
o Acting out dialogues with varied emotions or speaking styles.
 Using Coursebooks More Effectively (Long-Term):

· Reflection: Teachers should reflect on their experience with coursebook units to identify
problems and areas for improvement.

· Note-Taking: Making notes in personal copies or teacher's books to remember

challenges and solutions.

· Collaboration: Sharing experiences and adaptation ideas with colleagues who use the
same book. This can be done through meetings, suggestion boxes, or online platforms.

· Continuous Improvement: Regularly seeking ways to make the coursebook more effective
and enjoyable, especially when introducing new materials.
 Choosing Coursebooks:

When teachers have a say in coursebook selection, a systematic approach is beneficial:

· Define Priorities and Beliefs: Teachers should first list what they are looking for in a
coursebook based on their teaching philosophy and students' needs.

· Checklist Approach: Use these priorities as a checklist to evaluate different coursebooks.

· Key Areas to Consider:

o Price and Availability: Affordability for students and accessibility of all components.

Layout, Design, and Ease of Use: Visual appeal and user-friendliness for both teachers and
students, including accompanying digital resources
 o Instructions: Clarity of exercise rubrics.

o Methodology: Alignment with the teacher's beliefs about language learning and the variety of suggested
techniques.

o Syllabus: Agreement with the teacher's views and any external syllabus requirements, including language content
and skills balance.

o Topics (and Content): Potential for student engagement and cultural appropriateness.

o Teachers’ Guides and Teacher Support: Availability and quality of teacher's books and other support resources (e.g.,
online help).

· Gathering Information:

o Asking Others: Seeking feedback from teachers who have used the materials.

o Piloting: Trying out potential coursebooks with a few classes.

Designing Our Own Materials:

Creating original materials is valuable when existing resources are insufficient. Key considerations
include:

· Learning Outcomes: Clearly defining what students will be able to do after using the material.

· TITO Test (Time In, Time Out): Ensuring the preparation time is justified by the in-class benefits
and potential for reuse.

· Ease of Use: Making the material clear and convenient for both teachers and students.

· Reusability: Designing materials that can be used multiple times or adapted for different levels.

· Student Engagement: Considering how to make the material interesting and motivating.
 Looking Forward (Future Trends):

Technological advancements may significantly alter language teaching resources:

· Data Analytics and Adaptive Learning: Online platforms could provide personalized learning paths based
on student performance data, potentially replacing traditional coursebooks with granular online content.

· Personal Mobile Devices (BYOD): Integrating students' own devices into classroom activities.

· Flipped Classroom: Shifting direct instruction online and using classroom time for practice.

· Improvements in Translation Software: The potential for machine translation to reduce the perceived need
for language learning.

Despite these changes, the fundamental elements of successful learning (motivation, collaboration, effective
teaching, and practice) are likely to remain crucial. Technology offers exciting new tools, but their ability to
fully replicate or bypass these core elements is still uncertain.
 Roles that the teacher play

1.Controller : teachers give the students information

2.monitor and evidence gatherer : monitor the process of learning , help them to focus
on the task. Gather information about what they are saying and doing to make decisions
about what feedback they need and how much and the way of giving feedback.

3.prompter and editor : teachers need to encourage students to do an activity and

suggestions about what to do next . Sometimes , you need to give feedback about
correcting their assignment .

4.resource and tutor: as a resource , the teacher provide them with information or
guidance when needed. Sometimes , you act as a tutor - teach / guide individuals when
needed
5.Organizer / task -setter: here the teacher is going to

a. Engage students with a task .

b. Explain clearly what they are going to learn
c. Give step by step instruction on how to complete the task
d. Decide when to stop an activity :

E.g. when students are working in different groups you need to bring additional
materials for the first finishers .But don’t the students go on doing a task for a long time

e. Organize the feedback : focus on the achievement of the task or language that they
used.
f. Ask students to summarize what did they do and how did they do it
g. The feedback should be about the language and the processes they used to do the task
 Talking to students
1.providing comprehensible input: All the language that we use in the classroom starting
from greeting to saying goodbye is part of the language input

2.conversing with students :students learn more when they are involved in a dialogue with
others , so teachers must initiate these types of interaction because it is a way of learning -
process of negotiation of meaning.

3.modeling language: when giving new language , teachers should model it first [ the teacher
must soulnd clear and make language interesting to attract students’ attention] so students
an imitate it correctly

4.Reading aloud : teachers need to read aloud especially with young learners .This has the
power to enrapture both young and adult learners . Teachers need to rehearse the passage
first.
5. Give instructions : they need to tell students how the activity is done and what they need
to do to complete a task . \

Teachers need to be clear, brief, and positive

The whole class has to pay attention to the task . we need to think of

a. What students have to know

b. The order in which they need t know
c. The most efficient way to give it
d. Need to make the instruction short , clear , and give them time to understand
e. Repeate instruction if not clear
f. Check understanding by asking questions as: what are you going to do next?
g. Sometimes the teacher needs to demonstrate the activity to students
 Teacher as a teaching aid
Teachers can act as teaching aids through :

1. Using mime: Teachers can act out words, actions, and feelings to aid student understanding, from
concrete vocabulary to abstract concepts and even storytelling for language elicitation.

2. Using expressions: Facial expressions, while culturally influenced, can effectively convey emotions
(sadness, fear) or teacherly stances (uncertainty).

3. Using gesture: Gestures are frequently used for classroom management (e.g., indicating group work
ending, quieting down, starting choral repetition) and explaining meaning (e.g., past/future,
approximations, grammatical features).

4. Caution with Pointing: Pointing directly at a student can be perceived as rude; more inclusive gestures
like an open hand are recommended.
 What teachers do next

New teachers start with enthusiasm, facing the challenges of combining knowledge with effective
teaching, managing the classroom, understanding the language, and developing a teacher persona. Over
time, the pressures of teaching can lead to burnout, a state of drained enthusiasm, investment, and
interest.

Two important things about burnout :

1. Not only teachers suffer from this phenomena

2. After a long career many people go through burnout stages where they lose energy and willingness
to participate.
3. The challenge is to identify whether this is : life changing or temporary.
 Causes of burnout

1.teaching too many contact hours in a week

2.poor classroom environment

3.lack of support from superiors / school

4.not paid enough

5. Challenges caused by students

6.feeling bored from consistently repeating the same things [ routine ]

7. Teacher’s personal life

 What are the solutions ?

1. Continuous cycle professional development [ CPD ]: initial teacher’s learning is just the start of a
lifelong process , yet teachers need to remain fresh through things they do themselves and by working
with others .According to Keith Harding CPD is not an extra it is fundamental to the teacher’s
ongoing professional growth
2. The relation between Personal and Professional Development: Deniz Kurtoğlu Eken emphasizes that
"professional development cannot take place without personal development." She introduces the
concept of "Self 1" (prone to burnout) and "Self 2" (untapped potential : ability to talent or x that has
not been achieved yet ). Nurturing Self 2 can positively impact all aspects of a teacher's practice.
3. Not all teachers have the well to try doing new things. Yet, according to Graham Hall both teachers
and students have values and if the teacher has responsibilities and the power ; exploring them will
definitely help them to develop as teachers and teachers educators
4. Development is an important part of the life of good teachers . So , if they have the sense of inquiry, ,
willingness to appreciate adventure and knowledge and that there is always something they need to
experience they will seek development .
 Teachers on their own
Readjust your life