BVF3224 ALIGNMENT AND

CONDITION BASE MONITORING

Chapter 2 : Ultrasonic Testing

MOHD ANUAR BIN HJ RAMLI

ULTRA SONIC

EXTREME ACOUSTIC
EXCESSIVE AUDIO
OUT OF BOUNDS HEARABLE
TOO MUCH SOUND
Basic Principles of Sound

• Sound is produced by a vibrating body and travels in the

form of a wave.
• Sound waves travel through materials by vibrating the
particles that make up the material.
• The pitch of the sound is determined by the
frequency of the wave (vibrations or cycles
completed in a certain period of time).
• Ultrasound is sound with a pitch too high to be
detected by the
human ear.
Basic Principles of Sound
• Ultrasonic waves are very similar to light waves in that they can be
reflected, refracted, and focused.
• Reflection and refraction occurs when sound waves interact with
interfaces of differing acoustic properties.
• In solid materials, the vibrational energy can be split into different
wave modes when the wave encounters an interface at an angle other
than 90 degrees.
• Ultrasonic reflections from the presence of discontinuities or
geometric features enables detection and location.
• The velocity of sound in a given material is constant and can only be
altered by a change in the mode of energy.
TERMINOLOGY, PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES
AND FUNDAMETALS OF ULTRASONICS
THE NATURE OF ULTRASONIC WAVES
• Sound propagated beyond the range audible to people
• Derived from radar technique
• A form of Mechanical Vibration.
THE NATURE OF ULTRASONIC WAVES
 = v/f
Characteristics of
Wave Propagation
Frequency
• The number of cycles per second
• 1 Hz = 1 cycle per second
• 1 kHz = 1,000 Hz = 1,000 cycles per second
• 1 MHz = 1,000,000 Hz = 1,000,000 cycles per second
• 1 GHz = 1,000,000,000 Hz = 1,000,000,000 cycles per second
Amplitude
• a measurement from the lowest point that the wave hits to the
highest point the wave hits
• the intensity of the sound can be determined
Wavelength
• The distance between successive peaks of a wave
• Denoted by Greek Letter ‘’
• Can determine which type of wave
•
Velocity
• The velocity of propagation of longitudinal, transverse, and surface
waves depends on the elastic modulus and the density of the material
Acoustic Impedance
• Acoustic impedance (Z) is the resistance of a material to the passage
of ultrasound.
• Z = v
• The difference between two different materials/mediums which
governs the intensity of ultrasound reflected from the interface
between them
Acoustic Spectrum
Infrasonic
• Below than 16Hz
Audible
• 16Hz – 20Khz
Ultrasonic
• 20kHz – 25Mhz
The Ultrasonic Beam
 The side lobes has multi
minute main beams
Two identical defects may give
different amplitudes of signals

Near
Side Lobes
Zone
The main beam or the centre
beam has the highest intensity of
sound energy

Main Lobe Any reflector hit by the main beam

will reflect the high amount of
energy
Main Beam
Pulse Length

• DAMPING, then controls PULSE LENGTH (the number of cycles

x wavelength).The other factor that controls pulse length is
probe frequency.
• The higher the frequency the shorter the wavelength, i.e. the
length of each cycle in the pulse and hence the shorter the
pulse length (containing the same number of cycles).
• PULSE LENGTH controls RESOLUTION.
Factors Affecting The Propagation of Ultrasound
• attenuation (absorption and scatter effects)
• acoustic impedance of the test material
• characteristic impedance of inclusions
• diffraction
• lack of homogeneity
• anisotropic materials
The Decibel
• The decibel is a logarithmic base unit used to compare sound
intensities.
• dB = 20Log10
Couplant
• To enable the sound energy to transmit more readily into the test
specimen.
• Common couplants are
• Water
• Oil
• Polycell
• Swarfega
• Glycerine
Types of Ultrasonic Waves
and Their Application
Longitudinal/Compressional
• The oscillations occur in the longitudinal direction or the direction of
wave propagation
• Since compressional forces are active in these waves, they are also
called pressure or compressional waves.
• Propagate in Solids, Liquid & Gases
Transverse/Shear
• the particles oscillate at a right angle or transverse to the direction of
propagation
• Shear waves are relatively weak when compared to longitudinal
waves
• generated in materials using some of the energy from longitudinal
waves.
Longitudinal vs Shear
 Shear vs Longitudinal
• Propagate in Solid • Propagate in Solid, Liquid, Gases
Surface/Rayleigh
• Described by Lord Rayleigh
• Travel the surface of a relatively thick solid material
penetrating to a depth of one wavelength
• Generated when a longitudinal wave intersects a surface
near the second critical angle
• Velocity of approximately 90% of shear wave velocity
Lamb/Plate

• Developed by Horace Lamb

• The velocities depend on material, material thickness,
frequency and type of waves.
• Two basic form of Plate waves
• Symmetrical
• Assymmetrical
Lamb/Plate
Symmetrical Asymmetrical
 Surface vs
Plate
• Velocity is 90% of shear wave • Velocities are depend on material,
velocity. thickness, frequency and type of
• Propagate in a region no thicker wave
than one wavelength beneath the • Introduced into a material that
surface. has a thickness equal to three
• Where sharp changes in contour wavelength or less.
occur, such as a corner edge, • Can go through sharp edges
reflected energy will return to the
probe.
Behaviour of Ultrasonic
Waves
Reflection and Transmission at Normal Incidence
Reflection Vs Refraction

REFLECTION
REFRACTION
DIFFRACTION
Reflected and Transmitted Intensities
• Reflection Coefficient =

• % reflected Energy = ( x 100

2

• Z1 and Z2 are the respective acoustic impedance of the two materials

Refraction and Mode Conversion
Law of Reflection

O Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection

60o 60o
The sound is refracted due to differences in sound velocity
in the 2 DIFFERENT materials

Incident

Transmitted
Refraction

• Only occurs when the incident angle is other than 0° and...

30°

Water Steel Water

Steel Steel Steel

Refracted
Refraction

the two material has different VELOCITIES

30°
30°

Steel Water

Steel Steel
65°
30°

No Refraction Refracted
Snell’s Law
Normal

Incident I
Material 1

Material 2 Refracted
R

Sine I Vel in Material 1


Sine R Vel in Material 2
Snell’s Law
• =
• = Angle Of Incidence
• = Angle Of Reflection/Refraction
• V1 = Velocity of Incident Wave
• V2 = Velocity of Reflected/Refracted Waves
Snell’s Law

C
20 Sine I Vel in Material 1

Sine R Vel in Material 2
Perspex Sine 20 2730

Steel Sine 48.3 5960
48.3 0.4580 0.4580
C
Snell’s Law

C
20

Perspex

Steel
48.3

C
24
S
Snell’s Law

C
C When an incident beam of sound
approaches an interface of two different
materials: REFRACTION occurs

Perspex

Steel

When a waveform changes into

another waveform: MODE
C
C CHANGE

SS
Snell’s Law

If the angle of Incident is

C increased the angle of
refraction also increases

Up to a point where the

Compression Wave is at 90°
Perspex from the Normal

C
Steel 90° This happens at the
FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE

SC
CS
S
First Critical Angle

C 27.4

33

S
First Critical Angle

C 27.2 Sine I 2730


Sine 90 5960
Perspex Sin90 1
C
Steel 2730
SinI 
5960
S SinI 0.458
I 27.26
Second Critical Angle

C
C
57

S (Surface Wave)
90

Shear wave refracted at 90 degrees

Shear wave becomes a surface wave

Second Critical Angle

C C Sine I 2730
57.4 
Sine 90 3240
Perspex Sin90 1
S
Steel 2730
SinI 
3240
SinI 0.8425
I 57.4
The Critical Angle
Before the 1st. Critical Angle: There are
1st. both Compression and Shear wave in
the second material
C
At the FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE Compression
2nd. wave refracted at 90°
Shear wave at 33 degrees in the material

90°
Beyond the 2nd. Critical
Angle: All waves are
reflected out of the
material. NO wave in the
material.
S C At the 2nd. Critical Angle: Shear is
refracted to 90° and become
33° SURFACE wave
Transfer of Energy From
One Medium to Another
Generation of Ultrasonic Waves
Energy Losses in various Media
Generation of Ultrasonic Waves
• A phenomenon wherein different forms of energy are converted into
sound energy which in turn is the energy of mechanical vibrations.
• Example ;
• Piezoelectric
• Magneto strictive Transducer
Energy Losses In Various Media
• Different velocities results in different acoustic impedances.
Testing Technique and
Their Limitations
Basic Ultrasonic Test Method
Sensors
Techniques
Limitations in The Application of The Ultrasonic Test Method
Basic Ultrasonic Test
Method
Through Transmission Method
Pulse Echo Method
Resonance Method
Automatic and Semi-Automatic Method
Through Transmission Method
• Two transducers located on opposing sides of the test specimen are
used. One transducer acts as a transmitter, the other one as a
receiver.
• Discontinuities in the sound path will result in a partial or total loss of
sound being transmitted and be indicated by a decrease in the
received signal amplitude.
• Through transmission is useful in detecting discontinuities that are
not good reflectors, and when signal strength is weak. It does not
provide depth information.
Through Transmission Method
Tx Rx
Transmitting and
receiving probes on
opposite sides of the
specimen

Presence of defect
indicated by reduction
in transmission signal

No indication of
defect location

Fail safe method

Through Transmission Method
 Through Transmission Method
Advantages Disadvantages
• Less attenuation • Defect not located
• No probe ringing • Defect can’t be identified
• Vertical defects don’t show
• No dead zone
• Must be automated
• Orientation does not matter
• Need access to both surfaces
Pulse Echo Method
• In pulse-echo testing, a transducer sends out a pulse of energy and
the same or a second transducer listens for reflected energy (an
echo).
• Reflections occur due to the presence of discontinuities and the
surfaces of the test article.
• The amount of reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, which
provides the inspector information about the size and the location of
features that reflect the sound.
Pulse Echo Method

initial
pulse
back surface
echo

crack
echo
crack
plate
0 2 4 6 8 10
Resonance Method
• A condition of resonance exists whenever the thickness of a material
equals half the wavelength of sound
Automatic and Semi-Automatic Methods
• The semi and fully automatic and remote control systems of the
ultrasonic examination are rapidly improving in these days covering
very wide range of industries with much varieties in applications
Sensors
Normal Incidence Sensors
Angle Incidence Sensors
Special Sensors
 Sensor / Transducer /
Search
• The term Unit /testing
sensor in ultrasonic Probe
is used for the device used for
transmission and receipt of ultrasound
• An ultrasonic probe consists of :
• Piezoelectric crystal
• Backing Material
• A Matching Transformer
• A Case
 Sensor / Transducer /
Search Unit / Probe
• Piezoelectric Transducer
• The most important part of the probe is the crystal
• The crystal are cut to a particular way and thickness to give the intended properties
• Most of the conventional crystal are X – cut to produce Compression wave
• The frequency of the probe depends on the THICKNESS of the crystal
• Formula for frequency:
Ff = V / 2t

X X
 Sensor / Transducer /
Search Unit / Probe
• Backing Material
• To control two basic performance characteristics of the probe, namely,
Resolution and Sensitivity
• Sensitivity – The ability of the probe to detect echoes from small flaws.
• Resolution – The ability to separate echoes from two flaws which are close together.
• Backing materials for pulse echo probes are often made of fibrous plastics or
metal powders combined with various plastic materials.

z x

y
 Sensor / Transducer /
Search Unit / Probe
• Matching Transformer
• Transformer – is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between
two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction.
• In probe, Transformer matches the piezoelectric transducer electrical
impedance to that of the cable to the flaw detector in order to transfer
maximum energy from the cable to the transducer and vice versa.
• Protective Face & Housing
• Ultrasonic probe are encased in a metallic housing and usually provided with
a protective face or cover.
• Protective Face – Protect the sensitive transducer
from direct contact with the test piece and
improves the acoustical matching to the test
piece.
 Sensor / Transducer /
Search Unit / Probe
• Maintenance of Probes
• Dropping Down or by the application of too much load on the coupling
surface
• result in changing the sound field and reduction or loss of sensitivity
• Penetration of liquids and high temperature of the probe
• Affect the sound field and sensitivity
• Natural wear of the protective face and perspex
• Result of changing the probe index and a change in probe angle
• Extremely high voltage at the probe
• Complete destruction of the crystal
Normal Incidence Sensors
• These sensors send a sound beam, usually in longitudinal wave, into
the test specimen at right angle to the surface of the test specimen.
• The crystal should have its surface precisely parallel to the surface of
the test specimen to achieve an exact normal incidence
Single Crystal Normal Probe

Electrical
connectors

Housing
Damping
Transducer
Single Crystal Focused Normal Beam Probe
Twin Crystal Normal Probe

Transmitter Receiver
Metal
Housing

Acoustic Delay Block

Barrier
Normal Beam Immersion Probe
Single Crystal Angle Probe
Twin Crystal Angle Probe
Special Sensors
• Soft Nosed Probe
• Water Gap or Gap Scanning Probe
• Wheel Type Probe
• Delay Line Probe
• Magnestostrictive Probe
• Phased Array Probe
• Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer
• Laser Based Ultrasonic Transducer
• Paintbrush Transducer
Soft Nosed Probe
Water Gap or Gap Scanning Probe
Wheel Type Probe
Delay Line Probe
Magnetostrictive Transducer
Phased Array Transducer
Electromagnetic Acoustice Transducer
Laser Based Ultrasonic Transducer
• Ultrasonic waves may be excited in materials when the surface is struck by laser
pulses.
• The reception of Ultrasound is accomplished with an optical beam which is
capable of measuring small surface displacements

pulsed excitation Detector

laser

Sound Propagation
Paintbrush Transducer

• Constructed of a mosaic or series of matched crystal elements.

• Designed to be survey devices.
• Can cover large area areas with a small single –element transducer.
• After discontinuity was found, further investigation will be made.
PROBE SELECTION
Techniques
Tandem Techniques
Focused Sensor Technique
Double Crystal Sensor Techniques
Surface Wave Sensor Technique
Immersion Testing Technique
Tandem Technique

T R
Focused Sensor Technique
• These techniques employ the focused probes which concentrate a a
certain pre-determined point or region.
• Short focal lengths are best for test piece that are close to the front
surface
• Long Focal lengths are for increasingly deeper regions.
• Flaws that produce very low amplitude echoes can be examined
greatly with focused probe.
• Usually used for precise thickness measurements, detection of
laminations, discontinuities in thin sheets.
Double Crystal Sensor Technique
Surface Wave Sensor Technique
• Surface waves follow gentle contours and reflected sharply only by
sudden changes in contour.
• Relatively small region about one wavelength deep near the surface.
• Used in aircraft industry.
• Main limitation is that they are almost
immediately attenuated.
Immersion Testing Technique

Water path
distance

Front surface Back surface

Defect

Water path distance