UNIT TWO

PEOPLES AND CULTURES

IN ETHIOPIA AND THE

HORN
Content
 This unit traces human evolution and
 the Neolithic Revolution and
 describes languages and peoples settlement
 cultural settings of the region.
 Religion and Religious Processes
 2.1. Human Evolution
 Human evolution accounts only a fraction of history of
the globe that had been formed through gradual natural
process
 since about (circa/c.) 4.5 billion years before present.
 The earliest life came into being between 3 and 1 billion
years B. P. Blue green algae,
 small plants, fishes, birds and other small beings
emerged at c. 800 million years B. P.
 Primates branched of placental mammal stream as of
200-170 million years B. P.
and then some primates developed into Pongidae (such
as gorilla, chimpanzee, orangutan, gibbon etc.)
while others evolved into Hominidae (human ancestors).
Archeological evidences suggest that East African Rift
Valley is the cradle of humanity.
Evidences related to both biological and cultural
evolution have been discovered in the Lower Omo and
Middle Awash River valleys
A fossil named Chororapithecus dated 10 million B. P.
was unearthed in Anchar (in West Hararghe) in 2007.
 Ardipithicus ramidus kadabba (dated 5.8-5.2 million years
BP) was discovered in Middle Awash.
 Ardipithicus ramidus (dated 4. 2 million B.P.) was
discovered at Aramis in Afar in 1994.
 Other Australopithecines were uncovered at Belohdelie
(dated back 3.6 million years B. P.) in Middle Awash.
 A three years old child’s fossil named as Australopithecus
afarensis, Selam, dated to 3.3 million years B.P
 was also discovered at Dikika, Mille, Afar in 2000.
 Another Australopithecus afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh, dated
c. 3.18 million years B. P.)
with 40% complete body parts,
weight 30kg, height 1.07 meters
with a pelvis looks like bipedal female was discovered at
Hadar in Afar in 1974 A. D.
Fossil of Lucy
Fossil named Australopithecus anamensis was
discovered around Lake Turkana.
An eco-fact named as Australopithecus garhi (means
surprise in Afar language)
dated to 2.5 million years B.P was discovered at Bouri,
Middle Awash, between 1996 and 1999.
The development of the human brain was the main
feature of the next stage of human evolution
which produced the genus Homo,
believed to have emerged 2-2.5 million years B.P.
 Homo habilis
 A partial skull of a fossil
 which is derived from Latin terms "Homo" (human
being)
 and "Habilis" (skillful use of hands),
 dated 1.9 million years B. P.
 has been found in the Lower Omo.
 Homo erectus
 walking upright,
 dated 1. 6 million years B. P.
 discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and
Gadeb with 900-1100 cc brain size.
 Homo erectus seems to have originated in Africa and
then spread out to the rest of the world.
Homo sapiens
 knowledgeable human being,
 dated 400, 000 years B.P.named Bodo
 discovered in Middle Awash.
 Homo sapiens sapiens
 Fossils 100, 000 years B.P.
 were discovered at Porc Epic near Dire Dawa, and Kibish
around Lower Omo (in 1967).
 In 2004, Kibish fossils were re-dated to 195, 000 B. P,
 the oldest date in the world for modern Homo sapiens.
 Homo sapiens idaltu, found in Middle Awash in 1997,
lived about 160, 000 years B.P.
Cultural evolution is related to technological changes
that brought socio-economic transformation on human
life
It can be conventionally grouped in to Stone Age, Bronze
Age and Iron Age.
Stone tools had been the first technologies to be
developed by human beings.
Based on their features, ways and period of production,
stone tools can be grouped in to Mode I (Olduwan, which
was named based on the first report made at Olduvai
 Mode II (Acheulean, named after the first report at St.
Acheul, France) and Mode III (Sangoon).
 The Mode I stone tools are mainly characterized by crude
and mono-facial styles, and were produced by the direct
percussion.
 Mode II stone tools were produced by indirect percussion,
by using hand-ax or hammer,
 mainly characterized by bifacial, pointed and convex
features.
 Mode III stone tools are characterized by flexible and fine

form of production by the use of obsidian.

 Fossilized animal bones (3. 4 million years B. P.) were
found with stone-tool-inflicted marks on them
 oldest evidence of stone tool in the world at Dikika in 2010.
 Olduwan tools made and used by Homo habilis
 discovered near Gona (dated 2.52 million years B.P. in
1992) and at Shungura in Afar.
 Homo erectus produced Acheulean tools dated back to
1.7.million years B.P, invented fire and started burial
practice.
 Acheulian tools (over a million years old) were found at
Kella, Middle Awash in 1963.
 Homo sapiens produced Sangoon tools that trace back up
to 300,000 years B. P.
 Gademotta site in central Ethiopian Rift Valley has been
dated back to 200, 000 B. P.
 Other sites such as Gorgora, Ki’one and Yabello in
Ethiopia and Midhidhishi and Gudgud in Somalia have
offered information about Stone Age communities.
 The period of usage of stone tools is divided into sub-
periods
 the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age, from 3.4 million to 11, 000
years B. P.)
human being sheltered in caves, developed language,
and used stone , bone, wood, furs, and skin materials to
prepare food and clothing.
There was sex-age labor division
with able-bodied males as hunters of fauna, and children
and females as gatherers of flora.
Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age /11, 000-10,000 B. P.)
was transition between Paleolithic and Neolithic (New
Stone Age /10, 000-6, 000 B.P).
 2.2. Neolithic Revolution
 During the Neolithic period human beings transformed
from mobile to sedentary way of life.
 changes from hunting and gathering to the domestication
of plants and animals.
 Climatic change and increased hunter-gatherers’ population
resulted in the declining number of animals and plants.
 they began to grow, most common and yielded seeds that
are more edible.
 The process of domestication took place independently in
the various parts of the world.
In Ethiopia and the Horn chiefly in the more elevated and
wetter-parts,
people cultivated plants including Teff (Eragrotis teff),
dagussa (Eleusine coracana), nug (Guzotia abyssinica),
enset (Ensete ventricosum) etc.
The domestication of enset plant (Ensete edule) reduced
shifting cultivation (continuous clearing of new plots),
slowing down soil exhaustion.
 Neolithic material culture Areas
 The discovery of polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones,
animal remains in Emba-Fakeda around Adigrat in Tigray
as well as Aqordat and Barentu in Eritrea
 agricultural stone tools at Gobodara rock shelter near
Aksum
 Remains of domesticated cattle, chickpeas and vegetables --
Lalibela Cave on the southeastern shore of Lake Tana.
 Stone tools used for cutting grass and plants as well as
 rock paintings of domesticated animals found at Laga Oda
rock shelter near Charchar.
 2.3. The Peopling of the Region
2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes
 Ethiopia and the Horn is marked by ethnic and linguistic
diversity.
 There are about 90 languages with 200 dialects in
Ethiopia and the Horn.
 languages of Ethiopia and the Horn classified into two
major language super families.
 These are Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan.
A. Afro-Asiatic: this super family is sub-divided into:
 Cushitic: divided this language family into four branches
o Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern
Eritrea bordering the Sudan.
o Central: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant;
Hamtanga and Bilen.
o Eastern: includes Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe,
Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, Konso,
Libido, Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro, Tsemai,
o Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in
Tanzania.
Semitic: is divided into two:
o North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-
Sudanese border); Tigre (spoken in Eritrean Lowland);
Tigrigna (spoken in highland Eritrea and Tigray).
o South: is further divided into two
• Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte,
Wolane and Zay.
• Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes
(endangered).
Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-
Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime, Dizi, Gamo, Gofa, Hamer,
Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Oyda, Sezo,
Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse etc.
B. Nilo-Saharan: Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi,
Komo, Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu, Majang, Mi'en, Murle,
Mursi, Nara, Nu’er, Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo, Suri and Uduk.
 population movements, warfare, trade, religious and

territorial expansion, urbanization etc. forced languages

to be affected. In this process,
 some languages died out while others thrived over time
 2.3.2. Settlement Patterns
 A settlement pattern, the distribution of peoples across the
landscape,
 is the results of long historical processes in northeast Africa
 In some areas, settlement was dense and in other areas
sparse.
 Some people inhabited extensive highlands and others the
lowlands.
 environmental, socio-economic, and political processes
significantly shaped and reshaped the spatial distribution of
peoples in the region.
Since early times, the Cushitic and Semitic peoples had
inhabited the area between the Red Sea in the east
and Blue Nile in the west from where they dispersed to
different directions.
the Cushites evolved to the largest linguistic group in
Ethiopia and the Horn
and also spread over wide areas from Sudan to Tanzania.
the Semitic peoples spread over large area and settled the
northern, north central, northeastern, south central and
eastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. The Semites are the
second majority people next to the Cushites.
the majority of Omotic peoples have inhabited
southwestern Ethiopia along the Omo River basin.
In the west, the Nilotes are largely settled along the
Ethiopia-Sudanese border
although some of the Chari-Nile family inhabited as far
as southern Omo.
The latter are identified as the Karamojo cluster living
around Turkana Lake along Ethio-Kenyan border.
 2.3.3. Economic Formations
 The domestication of plants and animals gave two
interdependent modes of life: agriculture and pastoralism.
 Topographic features and climatic conditions largely
influenced economic activities in Ethiopia and the Horn.
 A predominantly pastoral economy has characterized the
eastern lowland region
 Pastoral economy namely the production of camel, goat,
and cattle
 most common economic practice among the Afar, Saho
and Somali as well as Karayu and Borana Oromo.
The plateaus have sustained plough agriculture
Majority of the populations were engaged in mixed farming.
sedentary agriculture had been started and advanced at least
since 10, 000 years B. P.
by the Cushites, Semites and Omotic groups.
The major economic activity of the Omotic has been mixed
farming and trade in northern Omo
while southern Omo have predominantly practiced
pastoralism and fishing.
Omotic groups also famous in metallurgy, weaving and
crafts.
In the sparsely populated western lowland region, the
dominant economic formations were pastoralism, shifting
agriculture, fishing, apiculture and hunting.
sorghum, millet, cotton and other crops have been largely
cultivated in the lowlands along EthioSudanese border
The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo Rivers
have been shifting cultivators
Among majority Nilotic communities, cattle have high
economic and social values.
Berta and other Nilotes had trade and other social contacts
with northern Sudan.
 2.4. Religion and Religious Processes
2.4.1. Indigenous Religion
 This includes a variety of religious beliefs and practices,
 which are native to the region and have been followed by
the local people since ancient times.
 A distinctive mark of indigenous religion is belief in
Supreme Being,
 but special powers are attributed to natural phenomena,
which are considered sacred.
 Spiritual functionaries officiate over rituals, propitiate
divinities held in a lot of respect as intermediaries
between the society and spirits.
 Some major indigenous religious groups:-
 Waqeffanna of the Oromo is based on the existence of one
Supreme Being called Waqa.
 Waqa's power is manifested through the spirits called Ayyana.
 The major spirits include
 Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit),
 Atete (women or human and animal fertility spirit),
 Awayi/Tiyyana (sanctity spirit),
 Balas (victory spirit),
 Chato/Dora (wild animals defender),
 Gijare/ Nabi (father and mother’s sprit),

 There is also a belief that the dead exist in the form of a ghost
called Ekera in the surrounding of his/her abode after death,
 In the autumn and spring seasons every year at the edge of
ever-flowing river and top of mountain respectively,
 there is thanks giving festival called Irrecha besides New Year
(Birbo) rite.
 Revered experts known as Qallu (male) and Qallitti (female)
maintained link b/n the Ayyana and the believers.
 Qallu's ritual house called galma is located on hilltop
 On Wednesday and Friday nights, there is Dalaga/ecstasy at
which Qallu or Qallitti is possessed by Ayyana so that she/he can
Among the Hadiya the Supreme Being is known as Waa,
who is believed to exist before everything (hundam
issancho) and
whose eyes are represented by elincho (sun) and agana
(moon).
Spirits like Jara (male’s protector), Idota (female’s guard),
Hausula, Qedane and Warriqa attracted prayers and
sacrifices at Shonkolla and Kallalamo mountains chosen
by Anjancho and Jaramanjcho.
One of Hadiya's clans, Worqimene, is believed to have
the power to send rain in drought.
 The Kambata have Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God and
religious officials known as Magnancho.
 The Gedeo called the Supreme Being, Mageno and had
thanks giving ceremony called Deraro.
 The Konso religion is centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh.
 The Gojjam Agaw used to call the Supreme Being Diban
(Sky God).
 Among the Gurage, have Waq/Goita (Supreme Being),
Bozha (thunder deity) and Damwamwit (health goddess).
 Yem worshipped Ha’o (Sky God).
 So’ala clan was considered as the top in religious duties as it
was in charge of Shashokam (the most vital deity).
 The Wolayta called God Tosa and spirit Ayyana including
Tawa-Awa /Moytiliya (father’s spirit), Sawuna (justice
spirit), Wombo (rain spirit), Micho (goat spirit), etc…
 Annual worship of spirits was performed at a sacred place
called Mitta at the end of May and beginning of June
 to offer sacrifice of the first fruits called Teramo
 The Wolayta had the practice of Chaganna (prohibited days
to work) to protect produce from disaster.
 People gathered around tree called Dongowa,
 Religious practitioners known as Sharechuwa had Becha or
Kera Eza Keta (ritual house).
 The Keficho called Supreme Being as Yero; spirit as Eqo
and a person who hosts Eqo is known as Alamo
 Father of all spirits is dochi and its host is called dochi-nayo
 Harvest spirit is called Kollo and sacrifice to it is dejo.
 Earth and area spirits are known as Showe-kollo
 There are also local spirits like damochechi of Channa,
yaferochi of Sharada and wogidochi of Adio
 as well as gepetato or king of hill identified by Yetecho
clan as landowner.
 Members of the Dugo clan led spiritual services.
 The Boro-Shinasha people believe in super natural
power called Iqa,
 which created everything and presides over the universe.
 The indigenous religion elements suggest praying for
 The prevention of drought, flooding, erosion, disease
and Starvation within the community and their
surrounding environment.
 The rituals are led by recognized elders,
 whose pray and bless are trusted to reach God among the
three clans: Enoro, Endiwo and Dowa.
 The Nuer believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven),
 but believe in the coming of God through rain, lightning
and thunder, and rainbow is necklace of God.
 Sun and moon are also manifestation or sign of God.
 There are also spirits associated with clan spears names such
as WiW (spirit of war) associated with thunder.
 The Nuer believe that when a person dies, flesh is
committed to earth while breath or life goes back to Kuoth
 feature of indigenous religion is the way its practices and
beliefs are fused with Christianity and Islam. This
phenomenon of mixing of religions is known as syncretism.
 2.4.2. Judaism
 Sources indicate that Judaism has been followed in
Ethiopia and the Horn by peoples before Christianity.
 The Bete-Israel practiced Haymanot (religious practices,
 which are generally recognized as Israelite religion
 Many of the Bete-Israel accounts trace
 their religion from the very ancient migration of some
portion of the Tribe of Dan to Ethiopia,
 led it is said by sons of Moses, perhaps even at the time of
the Exodus (1400-1200 B.C.).
Alternative timelines include perhaps the later crises in
Judea,
e.g., split of the northern Kingdom of Israel from the
southern Kingdom of Judah
after the death of King Solomon or Babylonian Exile.
Other Bete-Israel take as their basis the account of return
to Ethiopia of Menilek I,
who is believed to be the son of King Solomon (r. 974-
932 B.C.) of ancient Israel and Makeda, ancient Queen of
Saba (Sheba), and

Another group of Jews is said to have been arrived in
Ethiopia led by Azonos and Phinhas in 6th century A.D.
Other stories that attribute the presence of the Bete-Isreal in
Ethiopia to an intermarrige between Jewsh immigrants
with native Agaws.
scholars such as Tadese Tamirat and Kay Shelmay argue
the Bete-Israel are remnants of old testament followers of
orthodox Christianity rather than Jews who migrated from
abroad. What ever the case,
The Jews developed and lived for centuries in northern and
northwestern Ethiopia.
 2.4.3. Christianity
 Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D.
 during the reign of King Ezana (r. 320-360),
 who dropped pre-Christian gods like
 Ares (Hariman/Maharram/war god),
 Arwe (serpent python god),
 Bahir (sea god) and
 Midir (earth god), and embraced Christianity.
 Instrumental in conversion of the king were Syrian
brothers, Aedesius and Frumentius (Fremnatos).
 When Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) visited
Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos (328-373) appointed him as
the first Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC).
Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt
continued until 1959,
when Abune Baslios became the first Ethiopian
Patriarch.
Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the
society the later part the 5th century,
during the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86) by the Nine
Saints
 The saints also translated the Bible and other religious books into
Geez.
 The expansion of Christianity continued in Zagwe period (1150-
1270)
 In Medieval Period (1270-1527) many churches and monasteries
were constructed. These include
 Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela,
 Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in Eritrea;
 Debra-Hayiq in Wollo,
 Debre-Dima and Debre-Werq in Gojjam;
 Debra-Libanos in Shewa, Birbir Mariam in Gamo and
Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar.
 These churches and monasteries served as repositories of
ancient manuscripts and precious objects of art.
 From mid-sixteenth to the early seventeenth centuries, the
Jesuit missionaries tried to convert EOC to Catholic.
 this led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to expulsion of the
Jesuits.
In 1804, missionaries’ religious expansion also resulted in
the conclusion of treaties between European diplomats and
Ethiopian authorities.
The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist mission founder),
Giustino De Jacobis (Capuchin order founder), Cardinal
Massaja, Antoine and Arnauld d'Abbadie were active.
 Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS),
 Church Missionary Society of London (CMSL) and
 Wesleyan Methodist Society led Protestant missionaries
under such leaders as Samuel Gobat,
They translated spiritual books into vernaculars.
Village schools were established as centers of preaching the
faith.
They also provided medical facilities.
All these attracted a large number of followers.
 2.4.4. Islam
• When Prophet Mohammed had preached Islam in Mecca
since 610 AD, he faced opposition from the Quraysh rulers.
• the Prophet sent some of his early followers to Aksum
including his daughter Rukiya and her husband Uthman
• As well as Prophet's future wives Umm Habiba and Umm
Salma to Aksum .
• The first group of refugees was led by Jafar Abu Talib.
• The then Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham gave them
refuge from 615-28. the Quraysh asked Armah to deport the
refugees, but the king did not comply.
 Islam spread to the Horn of Africa largely through peaceful
ways including trade.
 Islam was well established in Dahlak (Alalay) Islands on the
Red Sea by the beginning of the 8th century.
 In the early 10th century, the Muslim community on the
islands developed a sultanate.
 Muslims settled other places on the Red Sea coast.
 from these coastal areas Islam gradually spread among the
predominantly pastoral communities of the interior
 through the agency of preachers and merchants.
 the Dahlak route played a minor role in the introduction of
Islam into the interior
 as Christianity was strongly rooted as a state religion in
Aksum
 the port of Zeila on western coast of the Gulf of Aden served
as an important gateway for the introduction of Islam
 mainly into the present day Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe.
 In 8th and 9th c. Islam radiated to central, southern, and
eastern Ethiopia
 through the role of Muslim clerics who followed in the
footsteps of traders.
 Sheikh Hussein of Bale, a Muslim saint (Waliy) of medieval
period, played very important role in the expansion of Islam
 into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern parts of Ethiopia and
the Horn.
 Another Islamic center in this region is Sof Umar cave.
 Islam was introduced into Somali in the 8thc A. D. through
Benadir coasts of Moqadishu, Brava and Merca.
 Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up Moqadishu
Minirate c.1269.
 The mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers have
been the depositories of cultures, traditions and literature of
local Muslims
 Many
thanks…!!!
 Quiz (5%)
1. What are the two major language super families of
Ethiopia and the Horn ? (2%)
2. List the main features of Neolithic revolution (3%)