Department of Nursing

Chapter 1: Homeostasis
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February ,2024

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 Outlines

1. Introduction

Definition of Physiology

Functional organization of the human body

2. Homeostasis (Control of the internal environment)

 1. Introduction

1.1. Definition of Physiology

¨ Physiology literally means ‘study of nature’ (Greek; “physis”: nature;
“logia”: study of)
¨ Physiology is the study of the normal functioning of a living
organism including all its chemical and physical processes
¨ Human physiology attempts to explain the specific characteristics
and mechanisms of the human body that make it a living being.
¨ The fact that we remain alive is the result of complex control systems
 1. 2. Functional organization of the human body

¨ Chemical level cellular level Tissue level Organ level  Organ

system level Organism level

 Example of cell- sperm cell, Ovule, RBC….

 Example of Tissue-Epithelial tissue…

 Example of organ-Heart, Lungs, kidneys….

 Organ system- human being has 11 organ system

 Organism-Ex-human, Dog, Birds…..

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 Systems of the body
I. Skeletal System
¨ The basic framework of the body is a
system of 206 bones with their joints,
collectively known as the skeleton.

 Protects and supports body organs.

 Provides a framework the muscles

use to cause movement.

 Blood cells are formed within bones.

 Stores minerals.
 Systems of the body…
II. Muscular System

¨ Body movements are due to the

action of the muscles which are
attached to the bones

¨ Other are present in the walls of

such organs as the intestine and the
heart.

¨ Allows manipulation of the

environment, locomotion and facial
Expression

¨ Maintains posture

¨ Produces heat
 Systems of the body…
III. Cardiovascular system

¨ Cardiovascular system (heart and blood vessels)

¨ Blood is pumped to all the body tissues,

bringing with it food, oxygen and other

substances, and carrying away waste materials.

¨ Blood vessels transport blood, which carries

oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc.

¨ The heart pumps blood.

IV. lymphatic system

¨ Lymphatic system (lymph vessels and lymph nodes)

 Both Cardiovascular and lymphatic system are

collectively called Circulatory System

 Systems of the body…

V. The Digestive System

¨ It comprises all organs which have to do with

taking in food and converting the useful parts

of it into substances that the body cells can

use.

¨ Examples of these organs are the mouth, teeth,

and alimentary tract (esophagus, stomach,

intestine, and accessory organs such as the

liver and the pancreas).

¨ Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.

 Systems of the body…
VI. Respiratory System

¨ Includes the lungs and the passages leading to

and from them.

¨ Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen

and removes carbon dioxide.

¨ The gaseous changes occur through the walls of

the air sacs of the lungs.

VII. Integumentary System

¨ The word “integument” means “skin.”

¨ It includes the hair, nails, sweat and oil glands,

and other related structures.
 Forms the external body covering( Protects
deeper tissues from injury)
 Synthesis vitamin D
 Site of cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.)
receptors, and sweat and oil glands
 Systems of the body…

VIII. Urinary System

¨ This is also called the excretory system.

¨ Its main components are the kidneys, the

ureters, the bladder and the urethra.

 Its purpose is to filter out and rid the

body of certain waste products taken by
the blood from the cells.

 Eliminates nitrogenous waste from the

body.

 Regulates water, electrolyte and acid-

base balance of the blood.
 Systems of the body…

IX. Nervous System

¨ The brain, the spinal cord and the nerves- control

and coordination.

¨ The organs of special sense (such as the eyes, ears,

taste buds, and organs of smell), sometimes

classed as a separate sensory system to brain

¨ The brain determines to a great extent the body’s

responses to messages from without and within,

and in it occur such higher functions as memory

and reasoning.

 Fast-acting control system of the body.

 Responds to internal and external changes by

activating appropriate muscles and glands.

 Systems of the body…

X. Endocrine System

¨ A few scattered organs known as

endocrine glands produce special

substances called hormones, which

regulate such body functions as

growth, food utilization within the

cells, and reproduction.

 Examples- Thyroid and Pituitary

glands.
 Systems of the body…
XI. Reproductive System
¨ This system includes the external sex organs and
all related inner

– structures which are concerned with the

production of new individuals.

¨ Overall function is production of offspring.

¨ Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone;

ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the
female reproductive tract.

¨ Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormone;

remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization
and development of fetus.

¨ Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk

to nourish the newborn.
 2. Homeostasis

Cell and its environment

¨ Cells are the living units of the body

¨ The entire body contains about 100 trillion cells.

¨ 60% of human body is composed of fluids.

i. Extracellular fluids (1/3)

 Is in constant motion throughout the body
 Internal environment (“milieu interieur”)

 Large Na+, Cl- , and HCO3-, ions plus nutrients for the cells, such as O2,

glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids and CO2

ii. Intracellular fluids (2/3)

 Large K+, Mg+, and PO4- 14

 Homeostasis…
¨ Homeostasis is the maintenance of nearly constant conditions in the internal
environment (Extracellular fluid) despite changes in the external environment
¨ The various ions, nutrients, waste products, and other constituents of the body
are normally regulated within a range of values, rather than at fixed values
¨ Essentially all organs of the body perform their functions to maintain constant
conditions in the ECF. For instance:
 Lungs maintain the normal concentration of respiratory gases in blood

 CVS transports required substances and removes waste produces

 Kidneys maintain constant ionic concentration and

 GIT provides nutrients

¨ Disease is often considered to be a state of disrupted homeostasis.

 Homeostasis…

¨ Examples of Homeostatically Regulated Variables include:

 Body Temperature (36.1-37.2◦C)

 Acid-Base balance (pH)
 Blood Composition (ions, sugars, proteins…)

 Concentrations of O2 and CO2 in the blood

 Blood osmolarity
 Blood pressure, cardiac output, cardiac rate
 Respiratory rate and depth

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 Disturbances of homeostasis

¨ Deviations in normal ranges: pathology

Hypo- or hyperthermia
hypo- or hypercapnea
Acidosis or alkalosis
Hypoxia or hyperoxia
Hypo- or hypercalemia
Hypo- or hyperglycemia

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Disease is a state of disturbed homeostasis

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 Normal Ranges of Some Important Parameters
1. Body fluid volume = 40 L
ECF = 15L
ICF = 25L
2. Osmolality = 300 mosm/L, (285 – 300 mosm/L)
3. Body temperature = 36.3 – 37.1OC
4. pH= 7.35 – 7.45
5. Blood Gases
PCO2 = 35 – 45 mm Hg
PO2 = 40 – 104 mm Hg
6. Electrolytes (ECF)
Ca2+ = 10 mg/dL or 5 meq/L
K+ = 4 meq/L
Na+ = 142 meq/L
Cl- = 103 meq/L
HCO3- = 27 meq/27

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 Normal Ranges of Some Important Parameters
7. Waste Products
Bilirubin = 0.5 mg/dl
Creatinine = 0.6 – 1.5 mg/dL
Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) = 8 – 25 mg/dL
Uric acid (s): Women = 2.3 – 6.6 mg/dL
Men = 3.6 – 8.5 mg/dL
8. Blood Glucose level (fasting): 70 – 110 mg/dL
9. Arterial Blood pressure (systemic circulation).
Systolic pressure = 120 mm Hg (90 – 140 mm Hg)
Diastolic pressure = 80 mm Hg (60 – 90 mm Hg)
Pulse pressure = 40 mm Hg
Mean BP = 96 mm Hg
Pulmonary AP = 25/10
Cardiac output = 5 L/min
Blood Flow = 5 L /min
10. RBC count = 4-6 millions/mm3
WBC count = 4000-11,000/mm3
Hemoglobin (Hb)= 12-18 g/dl in Females, 14-20 g/dl in Males

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 Feedback Control Mechanisms of the Homeostasis

¨ The human body has thousands of control systems that operate to keep
homeostasis in it.
¨ Feedback control mechanism is a means by which our body tries to
maintain its homeostatic environment.
¨ There are two main types of feed back mechanisms:

A. The Negative Feedback Mechanism (NFM)

B. The Positive Feedback Mechanism (PFM)

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A. Negative Feedback Mechanism (NFM)
¨ Negative feedback is the initiation of responses that counter deviations of a
controlled variable from its normal range
¨ It is the major control process used to maintain a stable internal environment.
¨ It works by producing an effect which opposes the previous condition (the
initiating stimulus) of the organ.

For example:

 If the PCO2 is increased in the blood, the NFM stimulates the respiratory center,

which has an effect on decreasing PCO2 in blood to normal via increasing

Pulmonary ventilation rate .

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 NFM control …

¨ Most homeostatic values of the body are controlled by NFM.

¨ Variables controlled by negative feedback mechanism includes:

 Control of Body temperature

 Control of Arterial blood pressure

 Control of Blood glucose level

 Blood gases level and many others

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 Human Thermoregulation
NB: an increase in the body temperature of only 11°F (7°C) above normal can lead to a
vicious cycle of increasing cellular metabolism that destroys the cells.

¨ Brain senses change in blood temperature

 if overheating, vessels dilate in the skin and sweating begins

 if too cold, vasoconstriction in the skin and shivering begins 24

 NFM…

¨ A negative feedback control system contains the following elements:

1. A set point value, which is at the center of the normal range of a variable

and is treated by the control system as the target value

2. Sensors that continuously monitor the controlled variable

3. A comparator (control center), which interprets input from the sensors to

determine when deviations from the set point have occurred

4. Effectors are the mechanisms that restore the set point to its normal level

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 b. The Positive Feedback Mechanism (PFM)

¨ It works by producing an effect which enhances or repeats the same action like
that of the starting stimulus.
 Self-amplifying change

 leads to change in the same direction

¨ Positive feedback can sometimes cause vicious cycles and death

¨ Positive feedback can sometimes be useful:-

 Childbirth

 Blood clotting

 Generation of nerve signals (action potential)

 Lactation

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 PFM …

¨ Some of the action of PFM disturbs the internal environment and cause
disease and death.
 For example, if a person suffers from a heart attack that damages the heart
function, then the heart pumps less amount of blood to the tissues including
the heart muscle and brain.
 ↓ heart pump ability  ↓blood supply to all tissues including heart  this
further ↓heart contraction and the heart becomes weaker and weaker that
may lead to death

 Because the heart muscle does not get sufficient nutrients and O 2, the

activity of the heart becomes weaker and weaker and the weaker the heart
the lesser blood is pumped and then death may occur. 27
 Examples of the PFM
a. Generation and propagation of the action potential.
 Stimulated nerve fiber  opening of Na+ channels  entry of few
Na+ stimulates the opening of more and more Na+ channels

b. Blood clotting is an example of a very valuable use of PFM.

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C. LH surge: the positive feedback mechanism

LH-surge immediately before ovulation 29

 d. An Example of Positive Feedback: Giving Birth

¨ The only way to stop this kind of phenomenon is removing the stimulus
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 Control mechanisms…

¨ Feed-forward control

 Anticipation

¨ Adaptive control
 Regulatory systems of homeostasis

¨ There are two systems in the body ¨ But there are differences:
designed for controlling body’s
 Nervous regulation is faster
homeostasis:
1. Nervous system and  Hormonal regulation is
2. Endocrine system slower
¨ Common Properties of Hormones and
 Nervous regulation effects
Neurotransmitters:-
are diffused
 Both are released in small amount
 Both have receptors on the target
 Hormones regulation is
organs mostly localized
 Both act by altering their target organs
 Both work towards common goal
→Homeostasis
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 Homeostasis regulation cont’d…

1. The nervous regulatory mechanism

¨ The nervous system regulates body
functions through generation of
action potential and release of
neurotransmitters.
¨ Neurotransmitters are chemicals
released form nerve endings.
¨ To bring about complete
communication among various
structures of the body, there should
exist what is known as reflex arc.
¨ Reflex arc is a path of neural reflex
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 Homeostasis cont’d…
2. The hormonal regulatory mechanism
¨ Hormones are chemical messengers secreted
by endocrine glands, and transported via
blood to the target organs including other
glands.

Examples:
 Parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid
hormone to the kidneys, bone and small
intestine = [Ca2+]
 Aldosterone from adrenal cortex  to the
kidneys, intestine [Na+]
 Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) causes water
retention from the kidneys and intestine.
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Thank you!