DATA ANALYSIS

AND
INTERPRETATION
IN RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
Presented to:

Dr. Muhammad Shahbaz

Course Code: ENG 532
Research Methodology in Linguistics

Presented by:

Hajira Riaz Roll no 19

Maida Maqsood Roll no 17
WHAT IS DATA ANALYSIS?
Data Analysis is the process of bringing order,
structure and meaning to the mass of collected
data. It is a messy, ambiguous, time consuming,
creative, and fascinating process.
(Marshal and Rossman, 1990:111)
Why do we Analyze data?
The purpose of analysing data is to obtain usable and useful
information. The analysis, irrespective of whether the data is
qualitative or quantitative, may:

 describe and summarise data

 identify relationships between variables
 compare variables
 identify difference between variables
 forecast outcomes
 Types of data in research

Two broad types of data are

Qualitative data and

Quantitative data
 Qualitative Data
 Data that is not reduced to numbers

 Data that is related to concepts, opinions, values, and

behaviors of people in social context.

 Transcripts of individual interviews and focus groups,

field notes from observation of certain activities, copies of
documents, audio/video recordings.
 Quantitative Data
 Data that can be expressed as a number or can be
quantified.

Test hypothesis, develop predictions for the future, check

cause and effect

Less generalizable, particular findings. Do not drive

conclusions and generalizations across a population
 Data Analysis in qualitative research

Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) is the range of processes

and procedures whereby we move from the qualitative
data that have been collected into some form of
explanation, understanding or interpretation of the people
and situations we are investigating.

QDA is usually based on an interpretative philosophy. The

idea is to examine the meaningful and symbolic content
of qualitative data.
 Main Principles of qualitative data
analysis

a) Language-based analysis

b) Iterative process

c) Subjective intuition versus formalization

d) Generic analytic moves versus specific methodologies

 Language-based analysis

Most qualitative data is transformed into a textual form and

analysis is done primarily with words. Thus, qualitative data
analysis is inherently a language-based analysis.

Example:
Interview transcriptions
 Iterative process
 Qualitative research is iterative, using a nonlinear, zigzag
pattern : we move back and forth between data collection,
data analysis and data interpretation depending upon the
emergent results.

 Do not need an extensive initial dataset to start

qualitative data analysis.

“A little bit of data can go a long way in gathering

meaning.”
Hesse-Biber and Leavy(2006:370)

 A key term in qualitative data analysis is ‘saturation’.

 Subjective intuition versus
formalization

The initial raw qualitative data is quite ‘messy’. The

challenge for analysts is to bring some insightful order to
multiple accounts of human stories and practices collected
or observed.
At this point two fundamentally different approaches can be
adopted:
• Subjective intuition (to find a creative way out of the
maze).
• Formalized analytical procedure (to uncover the hidden
meaning in a systematic, step by step process).
Generic analytic moves versus specific
methodologies
A final area that is central to the understanding of
qualitative data analysis is the tension between
advocating the use of a specific and coherent
methodology, such as grounded theory, or emphasizing
general and generic analytical moves such as ‘coding’
and ‘memoing’.
 Phases of Analytical process
a. Transcribing the data

b. Pre-coding and coding

c. Growing ideas-memos, vignettes, profiles, and other

forms of data display

d. Interpreting the data and drawing conclusions

 Transcribing The Data
 The first step of data analysis is to transform the recordings into
textual form.

 Allow us to get to know our data thoroughly.

 Far-too-long and less-than-enjoyable process.

 Real concern is the loss of information through the process. No

matter how good is the transcript is, it can never capture the
reality of the recorded situation.
 Pre-coding and Coding

 Stake (1995:71) defines analysis as

‘a matter of giving meaning to first impressions as wells as to

final compilations’.

 Coding involves highlighting extracts of the transcribed data

and labeling these in a way that they can be easily identified,
retrieved, or grouped.

 Researchers usually code and recode a text several times,

with initial, usually descriptive and low inference codes
gradually being replaced or supplemented by high order
‘pattern codes’.
Growing ideas-memos, vignettes, profiles,
and other forms of data display

The analytical tools in writing help to ‘grow the ideas’. These

analytical tools are :
 Memos (exploration of ideas, hunches, and thoughts about
the codes)
 Vignettes (short narrative that provide focused
descriptions of events or participant experiences)
 Interview Profiles (More substantial summaries of
participant accounts than vignettes)
 Forms of data display (an organized compressed
assembly of information that permits conclusion drawing
and action)
 Interpreting the data and drawing
conclusions
 Data interpretation takes the results of analysis, makes
inferences pertinent to the research relation studies and draw
conclusion about these relations.

 Data interpretation happens not only near the end of a

project: researchers start tentative interpreting as early as
initial coding stage when they prepare memos..

 Final conclusion involves

 Taking stock of what we’ve got
 Appraising the generating patterns and insights
 Selecting a limited number of main themes to elaborate on

awing conclusions
 Computer Aided Qualitative Data
Analysis(CAQDAS)
The methodological merits of CAQDAS are:
Speed of handling large volumes of data
Almost unlimited storage capacity and easy indexing option
More sensitive second-level coding
Potential for raw analytical strategies
Easy generation of an audit trial
Increased legitimacy of qualitative research
Names of QDA Softwares

Coding Analysis Toolkit (CAT)

FreeQDA
QDA Miner
Data Analysis in Quantitative Research

In quantitative data analysis you are expected to turn raw

numbers into meaningful data through the application of
rational and critical thinking. Quantitative data analysis
may include the calculation of frequencies of variables and
differences between variables.

A quantitative approach is usually associated with finding

evidence to either support or reject hypotheses you have
formulated at the earlier stages of your research process.
There are two prerequisites for getting down to data
analysis that needs to be discussed:

I. We need to select and learn to use a statistical

procedures

II. The data need to be prepared for analysis

 Computerized Data Analysis

 Mathematical aspects of quantitative data analysis are

dependent on computer and several statistical programs.

User-friendly and no need of mathematical training to use them

Most of them are interactive

The most important thing is to understand the various

statistical procedures so that we can select the appropriate
procedure for analysing the data and then instruct the computer
to run the analysis
The software package most commonly used in applied
linguistics and educational research is ‘SPSS’(Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences).
 Preparing data for analysis

Data preparation for analysis includes following steps:

a) Data Validation

b) Data Editing

c) Data Coding
Step 1: Data Validation

The purpose of data validation is to find out, as far as

possible, whether the data collection was done as per the
pre-set standards and without any bias.

It is a four-step process, which includes…

•Fraud, to infer whether each respondent was actually
interviewed or not.
•Screening, to make sure that respondents were chosen as
per the research criteria.
•Procedure, to check whether the data collection procedure
was duly followed.
•Completeness, to ensure that the interviewer asked the
respondent all the questions, rather than just a few required
ones.
Step 2: Data Editing

Data editing is a process in which the researcher

has to confirm that the provided data is free of
errors.

Researcher conduct necessary checks and

outlier checks to edit the raw research data.
Step 3: Data Coding

 Coding of data refers to the process of transforming

collected information or observations to a set of
meaningful, cohesive categories.

 It refers to grouping and assigning values to responses

from the survey.

 For example gender data is usually refer to as 1 for

males and 2 for females
Quantitative Data Analysis Methods

The two most commonly used quantitative data analysis

methods are

• Descriptive statistics and

• Inferential statistics.
Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics (also known as descriptive analysis) is

the first level of analysis. It helps researchers summarize the
data and find patterns.
Also called as “univariate analysis”.

A few commonly used descriptive statistics are:

Mean
Median
Mode
Percentage
Frequency
Range
 Inferential Statistics

These complex analysis show the relationships between

multiple variables to generalize results and make
predictions.

A few used inferential statistics are:

Correlation
Regression
Analysis of variance
What statistical analysis methods are
usually used in inferential statistics?

T-Tests. T-tests compare the means (the averages) of two

groups of data to assess whether they’re statistically
different.
ANOVA, which stands for “analysis of variance” allows to
analyze multiple groups, not just two groups
Correlation analysis. This type of analysis assesses the
relationship between two variables.
Cross-tabulation: It is used to analyze the relationship
between multiple variables.
Regression analysis: For understanding the strong
relationship between two variables.
Standard Deviation

A standard deviation (or σ) is a measure of how dispersed

the data is in relation to the mean.
ANOVA
 CHI-SQUARE TEST
A chi-square test for independence compares two
variables in a contingency table to see if they are related.
 Consideration in research data
analysis

Researchers must have the necessary skills to

analyze the data

Get statistical advice

To derive ultimate insights that are unbiased

Lack of clarity might mislead readers

Present accurate and reliable data

Data Interpretation

In Research
Methodology
 Interpretation:

 An explanation or opinion of something

means.
 A particular adaptation or version of a
work, method or style.
 Showing your own understanding of
something.
 An opinion about what it means.
Data Interpretation:
 Data interpretation refers to the process
of using diverse analytical methods to
review data and arrive at relevant
conclusions. The interpretation of data
helps researchers to categorize,
manipulate, and summarize the
information in order to answer critical
questions.
 What do the results of the study mean?
 Allmeanings, we know, depend
on the key of Interpretation.’

-George Eliot.
 The usual step proceeding data analysis is
interpretation.

 “Interpretation involves attaching meaning

and significance to the analysis, explaining
descriptive patterns, and looking for
relationships and linkages among descriptive
dimensions. Once these processes have been
completed the researcher must report his or
her interpretations and conclusions”
(Krueger, 1994).
Data Interpretation in
Research:

 Data analysis and interpretation is the process of

assigning meaning to the collected information and
determining the conclusions, significance, and
implications of the findings. ... The standard
deviation, in conjunction with the mean, provides a
better understanding of the data.

 It gives the results of analysis, makes inferences to

the research relations studied and draws
conclusions about those relations.
 Why Interpretation?

 Interpretation is essential for the simple

reason that the usefulness and utility of
research findings lie in proper
interpretation.

 It is being considered a basic component

of research process.
Methods for Data
Interpretation:

 Direct visual observations of raw

data.
 After organizing the data in tables.
 After making Graphical
Representations
 After calculations using numerical
or statistical methods.
 After mathemetical modelling.
 • Steps Of Data Interpretation

 Data interpretation is conducted in 4 steps:

 Assembling the information you need (like bar graphs
and pie charts);
 Developing findings or isolating the most relevant
inputs;
 Developing conclusions;
 Coming up with recommendations or actionable
solutions.
How do we Interpret the
Results of our Study?
Scales for Data Interpretation.

 before any serious data interpretation

inquiry can begin, it should be
understood that visual presentations of
data findings are irrelevant unless a
sound decision is made regarding
scales of measurement. Before any
serious data analysis can begin, the
scale of measurement must be decided
for the data.
Scales for Data Interpretattion:

THE VARYING SCALES INCLUDE:

1. NOMINAL SCALE
2. ORDINAL SCALE
3. INTERVAL
4. RATIO
 Nominal Scale:

• NON-NUMERIC CATEGORIES THAT CANNOT BE

RANKED OR COMPARED QUANTITATIVELY.
• STANDS FOR ‘NAME’ OF CATEGORY.
• NUMBERS ARE USED SIMPLY AS LABELS FOR
GROUPS OR CLASSES.
• IT IS LEAST POWERFUL LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT.
• USED FOR QUALITATIVE INSTEAD OF
QUANTITATIVE.
 Nominal

 It provides convenient ways of

keeping track or identifying
people, objects, events or
items.
 We can not do arithmetic
operations with the numbers
given to groups or classes.
 Examples: Number on T-Shirts
of any team players.
Ordinal Scale:

Quality ratings and agreement

ratings are examples of ordinal
scales (i.e., good, very good, fair,
etc., OR agree, strongly agree,
disagree, etc.).
 Ordinal

 Lowest level of ordered scale that is commonly

used.
 Data elements may be ordered according to
their relative size or quality.
 In this scale, we donot know how much better
one product is than others.
 It only permit the ranking of items from highest
to lowest level.
 Example: Beauty
Ranking

Judge 1

Katrina Kareen Shradh Sonam Prineeti

Judge 1
1
a 2 a 3 5 4

Judge 2 1 2 4 5
3
 Interval and Ratio:

 Interval: a measurement scale where

data is grouped into categories with
orderly and equal distances between the
categories. There is always an arbitrary
zero point.
 Ratio: contains features of all three.
 Interval:

 The values of zero is assigned

arbitrarily.
 We can not compare two measurements
while using interval scale.
 It doesnot have capacity to measure the
complete absence of trait or Time:
characteristics. Eg, zero intelligence,
zero beauty, zero power. We measure time of a day.
We can not say 10 am is twice of 5 am.
 We can take ratios of the intervals.
We can say the difference between 10
 It provide more powerful measurement am to 5 am is 5 hours .
than ordinal.
 It incorporates concept of equality.
 Once scales of measurement have been
selected, it is time to select which of the
two broad interpretation processes will
best suit your data needs.
 Data Interpretation Methods

 The interpretation of data is designed to help people

make sense of numerical data that has been collected,
analyzed, and presented. Having a baseline method
(or methods) for interpreting data will provide your
analyst teams with a structure and consistent
foundation. Indeed, if several departments have
different approaches to interpret the same data while
sharing the same goals, some mismatched objectives
can result.
 Disparate methods will lead to duplicated efforts,
inconsistent solutions, wasted energy, and
inevitably – time and money.

 In this part, we will look at the two main methods of

interpretation of data:
 a qualitative and quantitative data
interpretation:
Quantitative Data
Interpretation:

 Quantitativedata interpretation
is the process of analyzing
results from surveys, where
information is often compiled
into data tables for easy
reference.
 quantitative data is measured by visually
presenting correlation tests between two or
more variables of significance. Different
processes can be used together or
separately, and comparisons can be made to
ultimately arrive at a conclusion.
Qualitative Data
Interpretation:

 Qualitative Data Interpretation

Method
 The qualitative data interpretation
method is used to analyze qualitative
data, which is also known as
categorical data. This method uses
texts, rather than numbers or patterns
to describe data.
 Why is it important to interpret the
data?

 Through data interpretation the researcher can understand

the abstract principle that works beneath the findings.
Interpretation leads to explanatory concepts that serve as a
guide for future research studies. The interpretation of the
outcomes of exploratory research study results into
hypotheses for experimental research.
 Importance of data interpretation cannot be denied as it
helps to develop sound conclusion of your study. Hence
make sure you use the appropriate technique to interpret
the data.
Thank You