ERONGO REGIONAL

COUNCIL
Teacher: Mr David S. T
Subject: Biology
Grade: 12
THEME 1: CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS
 TOPIC
1.1 Classification
 OBJECTIVES:
Learners will:
• know how the hierarchical classification systems are used
 Learning Outcomes
Learners should be able to:
• use and describe the binomial system of naming organisms
• describe the use of a hierarchical classification system for living
organisms
• explain the concept of natural classification, based on homologous
features and evolutionary relationships
 Introduction
Today we are going to;
• binomial system
• the use of a hierarchical classification system
• the concept of natural classification
 Binomial system
• The binomial system refers to giving organisms a scientific name
with two name parts, the first name part being genus and started
with a capital letter and the second name part being species and
started with a small letter. E.g. Homo sapiens.
• The Binomial name is written in italic when typed and underlined
when handwritten.
Organism Binomial name Organism Binomial name
• Examples
Tiger Panthera tigris Donkey Equus asinus
Honey bee Apis mellifera Cattle Bos Taurus
Cheetah Acinonyx jabatus Kudu Tragelaphus
strepsiceros
Leopard Panthera pardus
Papaya Carica papaya
Welwitschia Welwitschia mirabilis
Lemon Citrus limon
The hierarchical Classification system
• Living organisms are divided into several groups
• The Kingdom is the largest group
• There are 5 kingdoms ; prokaryotes (bacteria included), prototista,
fungi, plants and animals
• Each Kingdom is then divided into smaller groups called phyla
(singular phylum) based on their shared features e.g animals with a
backbone
• Phylum is further subdivided into classes, order, family, genus and
species
The hierarchical classification
system
5 Kingdoms
 Natural classification
• Natural classification is based on the ideas of homologous structures
and evolutionary relationships.
• Homologous structures are features of organisms that are similar in
structure, but may differ from each other as they have been adapted
for different purposes.
• E.g: The flapper of a whale, the arm of a person, the front leg of the
cat and the wings of the bat are homologous because of the same
number and arrangement of the
bones but are used for different
purposes.
 Homologous structures are
• Similar in structure. Similar in position and development
• Share common ancestors. They may not have similar
functions and may be used for different purposes
• The structures look very different.
 Conclusion/ Summary of the day
• Organisms are grouped based on their structural similarities. These
groups are arranged from the largest to the smallest group of
organisms
• Kingdom, phylum (plural phyla), class, order, family, genus (plural
genera) and species
• The Kingdom is the largest group. There are 5 kingdoms ;
prokaryotes (bacteria included), prototista, fungi, plants and animals
 Class work
1.Outline the Hierarchical system in descending order? (3)

2. Use the binomial name of a sheep (Ovis aries) to describe

the term binomial system. (2)
 Class work
1.Outline the Hierarchical system in descending order? (3)

2. Use the binomial name of a sheep (Ovis aries) to describe

the term binomial system. (2)
 Class work
1.Outline the Hierarchical system in descending order? (3)

2. Use the binomial name of a sheep (Ovis aries) to describe

the term binomial system. (2)
The binomial system refers to giving organisms a scientific name with
two name parts, the first name part being genus and started with a
capital letter and the second name part being species and started with
a small letter e.g Ovis aries
 How to construct a dichotomous
key
• When constructing a dichotomous key avoid using colours.
• Try not to use words indicating size (small, big, long short etc.). Size
can only be used when it is qualified (e.g legs longer than abdomen).
• A key should always have one set of questions less than the
organism (if there are 4 organisms there will only be 3 questions or
statements).
 How to construct a dichotomous
key
• Use features that can clearly divide your organisms into two groups
and use visible and opposing differences.
• Use distinct, clearly visible and recognisable features (number of
legs rather than shape of legs)
• Be precise and avoid statements such as many or few rather use
“more than ten” “less than five” and avoid grouping more than one
feature at a time
• Start the key by writing number 1 (a) and 1 (b)
Constructing a dichotomous key
• Construct a dichotomous key using visible features for these four
animals
1 a) Wings present… go to 2
b) Wings absent… go to 3
2 a) One pair of wings… housefly
b) Two pair of wings… butterfly
3 a) Legs present… centipede
b) Legs absent… earthworm
Constructing a dichotomous key
• Construct a dichotomous key using visible features for these four
plants
 Classwork
• Construct a dichotomous key using visible features for these four
animals.
1.
 Classwork
• Construct a dichotomous key using visible features for these five
animals.
1 a) Shell present… snail
b) Shell absent… go to 2
2 a) Wings present.. Wasp
b) Wings absent.. Go to 3
3 a) More than 5 pairs of legs… centipede
b) Less than five pairs of legs.. Go to 4
4 a) Three pairs of legs.. Ant
b) Four pairs of legs…. Spider
 Classwork
• Construct a dichotomous key using visible features for these four
animals.
2.
 Classwork
• Construct a dichotomous key using visible features for these four
animals.
1 a) Wings present.. Go to 2
b) Wings absent.. Go to 3
2 a) One pair of wings… Musca
b) Two pairs of wings… Libellula
3 a) Legs present on most of the body.. Go to 4
b) Legs on front part of the body only… go to 5
4 a) Legs are all similar/ more than 16 legs… Lithobius
b) Legs of different types/ less than 12 pairs of legs.. Leander
5 a) Three pairs of legs… Pendiculus
b) Four pairs of legs.. Araneus
 Classwork
• Construct a dichotomous key using visible features for these four
leaves.
 Classwork
• Construct a dichotomous key using visible features for these four
leaves.
 OBJECTIVES:
Learners will:
• know how the hierarchical classification systems are used
 Learning Outcomes
Learners should be able to:
• discuss the meaning of the term species, limited to the biological,
morphological, ecological and behavioural concepts
 Introduction
Today we are going to;
• species, limited to the biological, morphological, ecological and
behavioural concepts
 Species
• The term species can defined in several ways namely;
1. Biological species,
2. Morphological species
3. Ecological species and
4. Behavioural species concepts
 1. Biological species concept
• Is a group of closely related species that have the potential to
interbreed and produce a viable, fertile offspring.
 2. Morphological species concept
• Is a group of organisms that are similar in appearance.
• Morphology is the study of the physical aspects of an organism
(internal organs, systems and bone structures)
 3. Behavioural species concept
• Its about courtship behaviours that enable individuals to recognise
members of the same species and identify mates capable of
breeding.
• Courtship (dating or romance )and mating behaviours are vital part
of species survival.
 4. Ecological species concept
• All members of a species that have a unique set of adaptations to a
particular set of environmental conditions.
• It focuses on a group`s ecological niche. Which is a set of
environmental conditions and resources that the group uses
 Summary
There term species can defined in several ways namely;
1. Biological species,
2. Morphological species
3. Ecological species and
4. Behavioural species concepts
 Classwork
1. Discuss the meaning of the term species using the four (4)
species concepts. (8)
 Classwork
1. Discuss the meaning of the term species using the four (4)
species concepts. (8)
 Correction
1. Discuss the meaning of the term species using the four (4)
species concepts. (8)
Biological species: Is a group of closely related species that have the
potential to interbreed and produce a viable, fertile offspring.
Morphological species: Is a group of organisms that are similar in
appearance.
Ecological species: All members of a species that have a unique set of
adaptations to a particular set of environmental conditions. It focuses
on a group`s ecological niche.
Behavioural species: Its about courtship behaviours that enable
individuals to recognise members of the same species and identify
mates capable of breeding.
 TOPIC
1.2 Biodiversity
 OBJECTIVES:
Learners will:
• know three levels of biodiversity, the importance of random
sampling and assess their distribution and abundance of organisms
in their locality
 Learning Outcomes
Learners should be able to:
•  define ecosystem and niche
• explain that biodiversity can be assessed at differentlevels:
• - the number and range of different ecosystems and habitats
• - the number of species and their relative abundance
• - the genetic variation within each species
•  explain the importance of random sampling in determining the
biodiversity of an area
 Introduction
Today we are going to;
• ecosystem and niche
• biodiversity can be assessed at differentlevels
• the importance of random sampling
 Defining terms
• Ecosystem: is a relatively self-contained unit, made up of the biotic
(living) and abiotic (non-living) interacting and functioning together.
• Niche: is the functional role that an organism plays within an
ecosystem.
 Levels of Biodiversity
There are 3 levels of biodiversity;
1. The number and range of different ecosystem and habitats
2. The number of species and their relative abundance
3. The variation within each species
 1. The number and range of different
ecosystem and habitats
• It is a Measure of the range of habitats. E.g. Sand dunes, ponds,
rivers. Ecosystem contains many habitats, habitats tends to be small
e.g. under a tree or a rock
• Ecosystem diversity is a measure of the range of habitats on range of
scales from small places/ countries e.g. Namibia to the whole world,
all have ecosystems in urban areas, coast lines, forest etc. Analysing
large areas requires looking at the ecosystem diversity of the area.
 2. The number of species and their
relative abundance
• The number of organisms in a habitat is known as species richness
which deals with ( number of species), species evenness (individuals
in each species) and how they are distributed
• Species diversity refers to the number of species and the number of
individuals within each species in a specified area.
• Species diversity is greater if there are more species with more
individuals of each species/ organisms.
 3. The variation within each species
• Variation is the differences that exist between individuals of a same
species. Variation can be continuous or discontinuous.
• Individuals within a species are genetically quite similar which allows
them to produce fertile offspring.
• The genes within a species may vary for instance , dogs belong to the
same species but they vary in terms of sizes, colours and shapes, in
other words they have genes for different traits. Small genetic
differences can have relatively large effects on the phenotypes of an
organism.
• Population with high genetic diversity tend to be much healthier than
a highly inbred population with low genetic diversity.
• Genetic diversity is a measure of all the genes possessed by the
individuals in a population or whole species.
The variation within each species
The importance of random sampling in
determining the biodiversity of an
area
• All items/ organisms have equal chance to be included in the sample.
Free from bias of the investigator.
• The rules of probability are applicable. As the size of a random
sample increases, it becomes more representative of the population.
• It is possible to estimate the magnitude of sampling errors in the
results obtained from a random sample. The selection of a random
sample is economical as it requires less money, time and manpower.
 Conclusion/ Summary of the day
• Ecosystem: is a relatively self-contained unit, made up of the biotic
(living) and abiotic (non-living) interacting and functioning together.
• Niche: is the functional role that an organism plays within an
ecosystem.
 Class work
1. Distinguish between an ecosystem and a niche. (4)

2. Explain what biodiversity is in terms of the number of species and

their relative abundance. (2)
 Class work
1. Distinguish between an ecosystem and a niche. (4)

2. Explain that biodiversity in terms of the number of species and their

relative abundance. (2)
 Correction
1. Distinguish between an ecosystem and a niche. (4)
Ecosystem: is a relatively self-contained unit, made up of the biotic
(living) and abiotic (non-living) interacting and functioning together.
Niche: is the functional role that an organism plays within an
ecosystem.
2. Explain that biodiversity in terms of the number of species and their
relative abundance. (2)
Species diversity refers to the number of species and the number of
individuals within each species in a specified area.
Species diversity is greater if there are more species with more
individuals of each species/ organisms.
 OBJECTIVES:
Learners will:
• know three levels of biodiversity, the importance of random
sampling and assess their distribution and abundance of organisms
in their locality
 Learning Outcomes
Learners should be able to:
• use Simpson’s Index of Diversity (D) to calculate the biodiversity of
an area, and state the significance of different values of D (the
formula for Simpson’s Index of Diversity will be provided, as shown in
the Mathematical requirements)
 Introduction
Today we are going to;
• use Simpson’s Index of Diversity
 Use Simpson`s Index of diversity (D)
to calculate the biodiversity of an
area
• A community dominated by one or two species only is considered to
be less diverse than one which houses many different species.
• Simpson's Diversity Index is a measure of diversity which takes into
account the number of species present, as well as the relative
abundance/ wealth of each species.
• As the species richness and evenness increase, so as diversity of an
area increases.
 Use Simpson`s Index of diversity
• Formula D = 1-Σ(n/N)2

Explanation of the formula

• n = the total number of organisms of a particular species
• N = the total number of organisms of all species (all species combined)
• D = Simpson’s Index of Diversity
• ∑ = sum or total
Extra guidelines
• The value of D ranges between 0 and 1.
• With this index, 1 represents highest diversity and 0 no diversity at all.
• NB: the value of D cannot be negative, if so check your calculations
properly.
Simpson`s Index of diversity

dead: 36
wink kiss: 2
devil horn: 1
 Simpson`s Index of Diversity
Use the table 1: below to calculate the Simpson`s Index of Diversity for
Omangeti farm

Table 1
 Simpson`s Index of Diversity
Use the table 2: Calculate the Simpsons index of these two flower
samples collected at Omaruru Greens and compare them to find out
which sample has more diversity.

Number of individual species

Flower species Sample 1 Sample 2
Daisy 300 20
Dantelion 335 49
Butter cup 365 931
Total 1000 1000
Table 2
 OBJECTIVES:
Learners will:
• know three levels of biodiversity, the importance of random
sampling and assess their distribution and abundance of organisms
in their locality
 Learning Outcomes
Learners should be able to:
• describe and use suitable methods to assess the distribution and
abundance of organisms in an area, limited to frame quadrats, line
transects, belt transects and mark-release-recapture using the Lincoln
index (as shown in the Mathematical requirements)
•  investigate the distribution and abundance of species in a local
area,using the methods above/ suitable methods
 Introduction
Today we are going to;
• to frame quadrats
• line transects,
• belt transects and
• mark-release-recapture
• the distribution and abundance of species in a local
area
 Methods to assess the distribution
and abundance of organisms in an
area
It is almost impossible to count every single organism in an areas as a
result we used the following tools to assess the distribution and
abundance.
1. Frame quadrats,
2. Line transects
3. Belt transects and
4. mark-release-recapture
 1. Frame quadrats
• A frame quadrat is a square frame made of wood, metal or plastic (1
m² or 0.25 m²)
• Samples should be taken randomly to avoid bias
• Results can show species frequency (chance that a specific individual
will be found there) and species density (how many individual are
found per unit area)
 How to make a frame quadrats
• Divide the area into 1m² grids
• Random numbers are generated for each grid/ quadrat
• Mark the plant species in each 1m² quadrat by excluding those at the
edges at least half of the plant should be inside the quadrat for it to
be counted.
 2. Line transects
• Lay a long measuring tape on the ground and place your quadrats at
equal intervals (e.g 2 m) along the tape.
• Sample the organisms that are present along the line/ tape.
• Record the identity of the organisms that touch the line at set
distances (e.g at every 2 m)
 3. Belt transects
• Belt transects are used to estimate the distribution of organisms in
relation to a certain area.
• Belt transects is a strip (e.g. 1m wide). It can be 1. Continuous –
sampling takes place over a short distance from one end to another
2. Interrupted – over a longer distance, taken at intervals (e.g. every
10m)
 3. How to make Belt transects
NB: Every sample must come from a marked study area
Steps
• Measure the transact of 5m from the edge
• Measure quadrats of 0.5m interval starting from zero and equal
distances apart
• Record the finding and calculate the % of plant cover
Formula:
• % plant cover = number of plants at a particular distance ÷ total
number of plants within 5m quadrat × 100.
• 4. Repeat this till you reach the end of transact
 3. Belt transects
There was 69 plants found at a distance of 3M and a total of 400 plants
within 5M distance covered, calculate the % of plant cover.
69÷400
=0.1725×100
=17.25% or 17%
 4. Mark-release-recapture
• Mark-release-recapture is a technique used to estimate the size of a
population of a particular species
It involves 3 main steps
1. Mark
• Capture the organism from the population. Count the number and Mark
them in a harmless way
• Marking should not interrupt the natural behaviour of the animals. Consider
the mobility of the animals
2. Release
• Release the marked organisms back into the population. The number of
these animals is recorded before they are release.
• Allow some time before the recapturing. Long enough for the mixing of
marked and unmarked individuals
• Not too long so that the population size is not changed due to birth, death
and migration. The mark is not washed off
 4. Mark-release-recapture
Step 3 Recapture
• Second trapping
• Capture and record the total number of organisms
• Marked and unmarked organisms are captured and counted in this
cohort.
Step 4
• Use the Lincoln Index to calculate and estimate the total population
size of a particular animal species.
4. Mark-release-recapture
 4. Mark-release-recapture
What to do
• Identify a suitable method to capture the organism
• Some common methods are: animal trap, net or aspirator for small
insects, pit trap for insects that are active on the ground surface.
• Choose a non-toxic method to mark. Make sure their natural
behaviour is not affected
• Leg banding for birds. Tags for crayfish shell, fish skin, mammal ears
• Water-resistant paint/ dye for animals with shell or fur
 Lincoln Index
• It is a way used to measure the population size on an individual
animal species
• It is based on the data collected from the Mark-Release-Recapture
method
Formula:
N=n1×n2÷m
Note:
N = total population size estimate
n1 = number of marked individuals released during first capture
n2 = total number of individuals both marked and unmarked in the
second catch
m = number of marked specimen recaptured
 Lincoln Index
• Activity: Use the information below to calculate the Lincoln Index for
snails at Etunda farm.
• 30 snails captured, marked and released, during recapture, 25 out of
60 are marked calculate and estimate the population size.

N=n1×n2÷m
N=First catch n1= 30 × Second catch n2 =60÷ marked organisms in
the second catch m =25
N=72 Estimated total population size. Of snails at Etunda farm
 Lincoln Index
• Use the information below to calculate the Lincoln Index and estimate
the total population in each case.
1.

2.
 TOPIC
1.3 Conservation
 OBJECTIVES:
Learners will:
• realise the importance of maintaining biodiversity and
know the actions required at local, national and global
levels
 Learning Outcomes
Learners should be able to:
• discuss the reasons for the need to maintain biodiversity
• explain the importance of reducing the pollution of water ways with
reference to bioaccumulation and eutrophication
• outline the roles of zoos, botanic gardens, conserved areas (national
parks and marine parks), ‘frozen zoos’ and seed banks, in the
conservation of endangered species
 Introduction
Today we are going to;
• the reasons for the need to maintain biodiversity
• the importance of reducing the pollution of water
• the roles of zoos, botanic gardens, conserved areas (national parks
and marine parks), ‘frozen zoos’ and seed banks
 The reasons for the need to maintain
biodiversity
Biodiversity has to be maintained for several reasons namely;
• 1. Human Benefits: biodiversity help to keep ecosystems stable and
provide humans with food (from plants and animals), provide us with
medicines (herbs and western medicine is derived from plants), for
tourism purposes (most African countries generate foreign currency
through tourists coming to see the Biodiversity)
• 2. Stability of ecosystems: the loss of one or more species within an
ecosystem has a negative effect on others. If a herbivore is lost it
means that the predictors population will decrease and the producers
(plants) will increase which might have an negative effect on the
environment (bush encroachment). The more biodiversity an area has
the healthier it is because it supports a large number of animal and
plant species.
 The reasons for the need to maintain
biodiversity
• 3. Moral and Ethical: we share the earth with a range of other
organisms and we therefore have no right to cause extinction of a
certain species.
• 4. Aesthetic: many people gain pleasure from studying or
appreciating the natural world (has a calming effect)
• 5. Other services: Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
which prevents global warming and plants also provide us with
oxygen which is needed for cellular respiration.
 Bioaccumulation
• Pesticides are chemicals used to kill pests while herbicides are chemicals
used to kill unwanted plants (weed).
• Most pesticides cannot be broken down by bacteria (no biodegradable) and
will remain in the environment e.g DDT that is used to kill mosquitoes. Since it
cannot be decomposed it can be washed in to water sources (rivers) and be
consumed by fish and remember fish is consumed by humans.
• In high concentrations DDT can have a harmful (poisoning) effect on living
organisms even humans hence DDT is banned in most countries. It can also
lead to cancer and birth defects.
 The importance of reducing the pollution of
water ways (bioaccumulation)
• Pesticides are dangerous in high concentrations especially humans.
• Pesticides are non-specific which means they kill harmless, non-pest
insects, pollinators (bees)and animals like fish as well.
• Herbicides used can however destroy birds and small animals
• It is therefore important to reduce the use of pesticides as some
insects might become resistant to it, and
to reduce the negative impact of the
pesticides and herbicides.
The importance of reducing the pollution of
water ways (bioaccumulation)
 eutrophication
• Fertilizers are used to improve plant growth. Nitrates and phosphates
in fertilizers are very soluble and can be washed away into streams,
lakes, rivers and dams and cause algae in water to grow faster.
• The algae can block out and reduce light from reaching aquatic plants
and they (aquatic plants) start to die meaning there will be less oxygen
and the decomposers (bacteria) decompose it them.
• When there is less oxygen aquatic organisms like fish and snails start
to die or start to migrate.
The importance of reducing the pollution
of water ways (eutrophication)
 The roles of zoos in the conservation of
endangered species
Zoos help to find gradually diminishing population of animals, keep
them in captivity/ confined and growing them until they are ready to be
released into their natural habitats. People can learn the actual
behaviors of animals.
Zoos can help to stop the extinction of animals, to raise money to fund
researches, to educate people about conservation, Zoos provide health
care services to the needy animals. Zoos play a very important role in
education, act as breeding centers and research centers.
 The roles of frozen zoos in the conservation of
endangered species
Frozen zoos are storage facility in which genetic materials are taken from animals so
that they can be reprogrammed into stem cells.
It is a collection of cells such as the skin cells, DNA, sperms, embryo and live tissues
from ovaries and testes to make a reservoir of such collections
The samples are stored/ submerged in a very cold liquid nitrogen of about (-190
degree Celsius) to retain their viability
Sperms can even be collected from testes of dead animals of an endangered species
The aim is to preserve animal diversity for future generation and ensure optimal
preservation of animals for a long period
Frozen zoos protect the gene pool of endangered species by reintroducing the extinct
species back into the environment
Egg/ ova production is usually low in females and hormones are used to increase ova/
egg production.
Frozen embryos are much easier to use then stem cells which needs to be
reprogrammed.
The roles of frozen zoos in the conservation
of endangered species
 The roles of conserved areas (national
parks), in the conservation of endangered
species
• These are relatively large areas consisting of one or more ecosystems
and they operate at national level. No human activities or settlement
allowed, human interference is totally prohibited
• Villagers cannot even graze their animals there. The park is used for
conservational purposes. It is often a reservoir of natural, semi
natural and developed land that a country declares or owns.
• National parks are used to reserve wild nature for posterity and as a
symbol of national pride. That is why these areas are highly
protected.
The roles of conserved areas (marine parks), in
the conservation of endangered species
• They provide sanctuaries for marine wildlife e.g. coral reefs. A
sanctuary is a place where injured, orphaned and conflict animals are
kept.
• The facility where sea animals are brought to live and to be
protected for the rest of their lives/ maintain each animal until their
natural death. These preserves the fish species that are at the verge
of extinction due to illegal fishing. Global Park Defence is an
organisation that protects marine national parks world wide.
 The roles of seed banks in the
conservation of endangered species
• Many plant species are at risk of extinction due to: habitat loss,
overexploitation, climate change and pollution. Most genes of plants
are contained in their seeds
• Germplasm resources becomes the carrier of plant genetic
information. Seed bank which stores thousands of seeds serves as
the most important facility for preserving such resources
• Seed banks prevent the rapid loss of biodiversity and germplasm/
living genetic resources such as seeds and tissues. Seedbanks serves
as a backup for the seeds of endangered species
• Seeds are stored at about (-20 degree Celsius) and they could stay
alive for hundreds and thousands of years.
 The roles of seed banks in the
conservation of endangered species
 The roles of botanic gardens in the
conservation of endangered species
• Botanic garden is a garden dedicated for collection, cultivation and
displaying of various range of plants with botanical names. It includes
green houses and shade houses
• They are often run by Universities or scientific research organisations.
They are used for tourist attractions and for educational purposes as
well as for art exhibitions.
• The primary aim is to document the collections of living plants for the
purposes of scientific research, conservation, displaying and
education.
 Summary
Biodiversity has to be maintained for several reasons namely;
1. Human Benefits:
2. Stability of ecosystems
3. Moral and Ethical
4. Aesthetic
5. Other services:
 Classwork
1. Discuss any two the reasons for the need to maintain biodiversity (4)

2. Outline the roles of zoos (3)

 OBJECTIVES:
Learners will:
• realise the importance of maintaining biodiversity and
know the actions required at local, national and global
levels
 Learning Outcomes
Learners should be able to:
• explain why it may be necessary to limit the population of species,
for example by culling or contraception, in order to reduce pressure
of other species
• Explain, using examples, the importance of controlling alien species
• Describe how degraded habitats may be restored limited to local or
regional examples
• Investigate the negative impact of rhino and elephant poaching on
the tourism sector locally (Namibia) and regionally (South Africa and
Botswana)
 Introduction
Today we are going to;
• why it may be necessary to limit the population of species
• the importance of controlling alien species
• how degraded habitats may be restored
• the negative impact of rhino and elephant poaching on the tourism
 Why it may be necessary to limit the
population of species (Culling)
• Some individual animal is a species may be too many for the
resources available. Excess/ unwanted animals are killed to reduce
their number (Seals and Elephants especially problemaic ones in
Namibia).
• This is an important practice as it reduces competition for resources
such as food, mate and water. It also helps to maintain the natural
balance and the carrying capacity of an area.
Why it may be necessary to limit the
population of species (Contraception)
• Culling may be perceived by many people as an inhumane activity
and cruelty against animals.
• Ref to: SPCA Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. Assist
in the prevention of cruelty to animals, do rehabilitation and finding
homes for maltreated and unwanted animals. In Windhoek and
Otjiwarongo.
• An alternative method can be used to control the animal population
and that is (contraception). Animals e.g. elephants are injected with
immune-contraception.
• It controls the reproduction rate in female animals as they are
vaccinated from conceiving. The injection is reversible, economic and
humane and offers a long term solution to control animal population.
Why it may be necessary to limit the
population of species (Contraception)
 Alien species
• Some examples of alien species are: zebra mussel, burnese python,
black rats, common rabbit, northerd snake-head fish, Nile perch,
Asian tiger mosquito, came toad, Africanised honey bees and killer
harnets.
• Ambrosia: pollen from this plant aggravates hay fever symptoms.
• Floating pennywort: a fast-growing aquatic plant that can completely
clog up drainage ditches, rivers and canals.
• Grey squirrel: native to North America, these squirrels carry diseases
that threaten the native red squirrel.
 Alien species
• Stone morocco: a small fish native to Eastern Asia that has escaped
from garden ponds and now threatens native fish species.
• Giant hogweed: a large plant that crowds out other plants.
• Tobacco related aliens KUISEB RIVER
• Certain fish species in ZAMBEZI river
 The importance of controlling alien
species
• Both bacteria, animals and plants may act as alien to a certain area.
They cost the world about 1.4 trillion U$ dollars per year in loses.
They should be carefully controlled to give rise to other useful species
in the community.
• These species grow rapidly, devastate local ecosystems, consume,
adapt, concur, and threaten human health. They are non-needed
organisms and may cause considerable damage when introduced to
an area often as a result of human activities or sometimes
unintentionally.
 How degraded habitats may be
restored
• Habitats can be degraded human activities (pollution, deforestation , wars etc) or
by natural catastrophes (floods, drought, fires) and therefore has to be restored in
order to again support the ecosystem. Habitats can be restored in the following
ways;
• 1. Erosion control which deals with preventing or controlling wind or water by using
cover crops were grass is grown to control soil erosion.
• 2. Reforesting: replanting of trees to restore the degraded habitats and reverse the
effects of deforestation.
• 3. Reintroduction of local species that have the local adaptation.
• 4. An excellent example is the restoration is the cheetah conservation fund (CCF)
which had restored large areas of habitat land for the cheetah and its prey.
 Classwork
1. a) In a groups of 5-6 learners Investigate the negative impact of
rhino and elephant poaching on the tourism sector locally (Namibia)
and regionally (South Africa and Botswana) and create a poster that you
will have to present as a group.
b) Come up with solutions required at local, national and global
levels to bring Rhino and Elephant poaching.

Marking Criteria
10 marks for Research/ Collection of data
5 Creativity
5 Visual Aids
10 marks for Presentations