SOME FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS IN THE STUDY OF TRANSFER

? ?

?
?

Problems of definition Problems of comparison Problems of prediction Problems of generalization

SOME FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS IN THE STUDY OF TRANSFER

Language transfer refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from their native language to a second language.

Problems of Definition

Transfer is not simply a consequence of habit formation

Rooted habits in L1 can hinder the formation of

habits in L2, thus Behaviorists believed transfer

implies the extinction of earlier habits (Odlin. T, 1989).
-

This notion is inappropriate because: Habits in L1 are supposed to be impossible for L2 learners to get rid of Acquisition of L2 does not lead to any

replacement of the learners L1

Transfer is not simply interference

Interference

was the result of proactive inhibition

(Ellis. R, 1985), i.e. previous learning prevents or inhibits the learning of new habits, thus, error is likely to arise in L2

E.g. Jai froid I have cold

This is unable to cover the issue of transfer because there are both differences and similarities in L1 and L2. If a certain aspect in L1 is similar to that in L2, there will be no error.

E.g. Elle est belle

She is beautiful

Transfer is not simply a falling back on the native language

Krashen

claims that : Transfer can still be regarded as padding, or the result of falling back on old knowledge of L1 rule, when new knowledge is lacking. It may be a production strategy that cannot help acquisition. This is problematic because of : - The ignorance of the head start that speakers of some languages have in coming to a new language. - The fact that there is no neat correspondence between learners L1 patterns and their attempts to use L2 - Failure to recognize that cross-linguistic influences can be beneficial in listening or reading comprehension - Inability of accounting for the long-term results of language contact in some settings

Transfer is not always native language influence

Knowledge

of three or more languages can lead to three or more different kinds of source language influence, and it is hard to discover the exact influences in multilingual situation

Definition

Transfer can be defined as the influence resulting from similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired (Odlin, 1989: 27)

2. PROBLEMS OF COMPARISON
2.1. Descriptive and . theoretical adequacy 2.2. Some problems in contrastive description 2.3. Structural and nonstructural factors 2.4. Comparison of performances

2.1 Descriptive and theoretical adequacy What is descriptive adequacy ? Descriptive adequacy is the satisfaction which shows how a language is actually spoken or written
Ex: - /d /: voiced, stop, alveolar [ li:d] devoiced

Theoretical adequacy - An ideal grammar would be both descriptively and

theoretically adequate, and the same criteria apply to a contrastive analysis. Accurate and through descriptions are important.

I bought a pen

I bought a book. (pen)

Theoretical adequacy
- While many contrastive analyses provide useful and sometimes highly perceptive information about languages they compare, none comes close to meeting in full the criteria of descriptive and theoretical adequacy.

Theoretical adequacy
- Despite this lack of consensus, certain theoretical approach have found much favor among contrastive analyses and students of second language acquisition.

2.2.Some problems in contrastive description

- One of the most fundamental problems is IDEALIZATION

The characterization of the most important aspects of a language with the elimination of unneeded details.
-Idealization of linguistic data is unavoidable since there are many minute variations in the speech of individuals who consider themselves to be speakers of the same language. * EX: contrastive descriptions of Arabic speakers in Iraq and Egypt in pronunciation -Social variation can matter as much as regional variation in contrastive descriptions

- That linguistic difference is equivalent to linguistic difficulty. EX: Apprendre (French) &Teach, learn (English) - A fully developed contrastive analysis would include an accurate hierarchy of difficulty, that is, a definitive statement about which contrastive most and least likely to cause problems. That hierarchy would have to account for, among other things, those cases in which similarities between languages prove to be more troublesome than some differences. EX: the resemblance between English embarrassed and Spanish embarazado (which means "pregnant") ( I am very pregnant # I am embarrassed)

-Another challenge for any contrastive description is the INTERACTION OF SUBSYSTEMS. Psycholinguistic research has demonstrated a strong interdependence among discourse, syntax, phonology, and other subsystems in the comprehension and production of language. EX: You are a teacher, arent you?

2.3. Structural and nonstructural factors

-the term structure is roughly synonymous with the term TAGMEME(a unity of form and function) (Pike 1954). Ex: The baby bit Mary (SVO)

- Discourse involves much more than what a purely structural analysis covers. Is she a good student ?

Politeness

is an aspect of discourse that is very important for any crosslinguistic comparison, but it is also one that involves many nonlinguistic factors.
Apologies in Japanese

Apologies in English

- Another problematic factors is LANGUAGE DISTANCE, ( the degree of similarity between two languages.) EX: English = French> Eskimo - Spanish = French > English -There are clear resemblances between languages whose historical relationships are not certain EX: Korean and Japanese Japanese and Quechua

- Objective

measures of the distance between languages can be established through careful comparisons of structural similarities which would show
Ex: - Lhopital (in French) - Hospital (in English)

The subjective judgments of language distance by learners can matter considerably.

English
mouth wife thunder

Dutch
mond wiif donder

German
mund weib donner

2.4. Comparison of performances

- While a contrastive analysis is a necessary condition to establish the likelihood of transfer, it is not always a sufficient condition. By comparing the performances of speakers of at least two different native languages, researchers can better determine any effects of negative transfer Ex: I know the man that John gave the book to him

resumptive pronouns. (A contrastive analysis of a relative clause in Persian)

-In some cases the need for a formal comparison of performances is not very great. EX: the spelling of playing as blaying is more likely be the spelling error of an Arabic speaker than of a Spanish speaker EX: - He's after telling a lie He has told a lie" The anomalous verb form found in Hiberno-English sentences

While explicit comparisons are often desirable in determining negative transfer, they are indispensable in determining positive transfer.

EX: :- El cuadro es muy oscuro.

The picture is very dark ( word- for- word- grammatical correspondence between Spanish & English) The contrastive of Spanish and English

- Regardless of how much or how little any training in translation or other second language behaviors may encourage substratum transfer, there is strong evidence that different acquisition patterns are associated with different native language backgrounds.

3.3 Problems of prediction

Forecasts and A classification Transfer and explanations of outcomes simplification

Individual outcomes

3.3.1 Forecasts and explanations

Forecasts Prediction is frequently based on data about learner performances already known to a linguist who has interpreted the data record with the help of cross linguistic comparisons. Eg: A record of errors in French made by English-speaking students in previous years can serve as predictor of errors that English-speaking students will make in a French course next year

Explanations
Good

contrastive analysis should make it easier to explain why transfer will or will not occur in any given instance * Relation between Prediction and Explanations Without a clear understanding of the conditions that occasions transfer, there is a little hope of developing highly sophisticated contrastive analyses that make predictions While good predictions may be the ultimate goal, good explanations are crucial part of achieving that goal

Contrastive analyses

develop

Forecasts
understand

Explanations

Possible outcomes of cross- linguistic similarities and differences

3.3.2 A classification of outcomes

Positive transfer

Negative transfer

Differing lengths of acquisition

Underproduction Overproduction Production errors

Misinterpretation

I.Positive transfer
The

effects of positive transfer are only determinable through comparisons of the success of groups with different native languages.Such comparisons often show that cross- linguistic similarities can produce positive transfer in several ways. * Similarities between native language and target language vocabulary can reduce the time needed to develop good reading comprehension. Eg: Similarities between English & French vocabularies ( sport, volleyball, football, babysitter,pay/payer,admire/admirer,finish/finir,arrive/arriver, impatience,simple....)

* Similarities between vowel systems can make the identification of vowel sounds easier. Eg:English and Vietnamese vowel systems ( monothongs; u,e,o,a,i -> how to use articals a/an)

Similarities between writing systems can give learners a head start in reading and writing in the target language Eg:How to write a compositon in English and Vietnamese ( 3 main parts: introduction, body, conclusion),how to write a letter... * Similarities in syntactics structures can facilitate the acquisition of grammar English: I played sports. S V O French: J ai fait du sport . S V COD

II.Negative transfer
Since

Negative transfer involves divergences from norms in the target language, it is often relatively easy to identify. Learners may produce very few or no examples of a target language structure.There is good evidence for one form of underproduction related to language distance: avoidance Eg: Chinese and Japanese students tended to use fewer relative clause structures more like those of English

A.Underproduction:

II.Negative transfer
B.Overproduction
Overproduction is sometimes simply a consequence underproduction. Eg: In an effort to avoid relative clauses, Japansese students may violate norms of written prose in English by writing too many simple sentences in the native and target languages

II.Negative transfer
C.Production errors In speech and writing there are 3 types of errors especially likely to arise from similarities and differences Production errors

substitutions

calques

alterations

Production errors
Substitutions
Substitutions involve a use of native language forms in the target language. Eg: English: Now I live home with my parents but sometimes I must go away Swedish: Now I live home with my parents but sometimes I must go bort.( bort is the Swedish word) Arabic speakers sometimes make ESL spelling errors: Letter b & p as in playing -> blaying, habit -> hapit

Production errors
Calques
Calques

are errors that reflect very closely a native language structure Eg: English: 1. I like you very much 2. Nams house Vietnamese: 1. I very like you. 2. Houses Nam

Production errors
Alterations

Eg: Intonation between English and Vietnamese 1.Yes/No Questions: Do you live here? Are you happy? 2.WH Questions : Where do you live? What is your name?

D.Misinterpretation
Native

language structures can influence the interpretation of target language messages, and sometimes that influence leads to learners inferring something very different from what speakers of the target language would infer. Misinterpretations may also occur when native and target language word- order differ Eg: Vietnamese: She is a girl beautiful English: She is a beautiful girl

II.Negative transfer
Misinterpretations

may also occur when cultural assumptions differ Eg: Vietnamese: Ask questions: (Age,Marriage,Salary) English: Avoid asking these questions ( considered private questions)

III.Differing lengths of acquisition

The

distinction between positive and negative transfer is useful, but the study of these types of transfer tends to focus on specific details and not on the cumulative effects of crosslinguistic similarities and differences on the acquisition process. One way of assessing such effects is to look at the length of time needed to achieve a high degree of mastery of a language

III.Differing lengths of acquisition

Little reseach: The length of language courses offered to member of the U.S diplomatic corps. Language Number of weeks

Chinese Dutch French Indonesian Italian Japanese

44 24 20 32 20 44

Similar to English in many respects Share fewer structural similarities with English

3.3.3 Transfer and simplification

There

are cases in which cross-linguistic influence is not very compelling explanation ?Eg: The omission of pronouns of a Spanish speaker In Saturday no like, no time, watch TV... On Saturday I dont like ( to go to the movies), I dont have any time. I watch TV...

3.3.4 Individual outcomes

Individuals

vary in many ways,including in their experience and aptitude for learning languages and such variation can definitely affect transfer . In the study of complex individuals who speak complex languages, predictions are statements of probabilities.Progress will result from refining contrastive predictions so that they more frequently tally with actual outcomes

SOME FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS IN THE STUDY OF TRANSFER

PROBLEMS OF GENERALIZATION

Problems of generalization
Laguage universals Linguistic typologies Universalists assumptions

LANGUAGE UNIVERSALS

Chomskyan approach: Children are hypothesized to have an innate knowledge of the basic grammatical structure

common to all human languages. This innate knowledge is

often referred to as universal grammar (retrieved from Wikipedia) which is available to guide the progress of

adults learning L2 (Odlin, 1989: 44)

Greenbergian approach: involves the cross-linguistic

regularities which include the finding of the most common

word-order patterns in the world languages such as SVO, SOV, VOS (Odlin, 1989: 44)

LINGUISTIC TYPOLOGIES
Linguistic

typology is a subfield of linguistics that studies and classifies languages according to their structural features. Its aim is to describe and explain the structural diversity of the world's languages. (retrieved from Wikipedia)

LINGUISTIC TYPOLOGIES (cont.)

Typological -

analyses contributions to the study of transfer: (3 ways) Provide basis for estimating language distance. Encourage the study of transfer in terms of systemic influences Provide a clearer understanding of relation between transfer and developmental sequences

UNIVERSALIST ASSUMPTIONS
There

are categories (e.g. Subject are universal) applicable to the analysis of all languages There are certain meanings that are equivalent in the discourse and semantic systems of all human languages. Without some notion of translation equivalence, there can be no useful cross-linguistic comparison of structures (e.g. Negation is found in all language)