Network Layer

(Address Mapping, Error Reporting, and Multicasting)

Unit III
By
Arvinda kushwaha
Professor
Department of Data Science
GCET Greater Noida(097)
 Content
Network Layer
Point - to Pont Networks
Routing
Congestion control
Internetworking -TCP / IP, IP
packet
IP address, IPv6.
 1 ADDRESS MAPPING

The delivery of a packet to a host or a router requires

two levels of addressing: logical and physical. We need
to be able to map a logical address to its corresponding
physical address and vice versa. This can be done by
using either static or dynamic mapping.

Topics discussed in this section:

Mapping Logical to Physical Address
Mapping Physical to Logical Address
Figure 1 ARP operation
Figure 2 ARP packet
Figure 3 Encapsulation of ARP packet
Figure 4 Four cases using ARP
Note

An ARP request is broadcast;

an ARP reply is unicast.
 Example 1

A host with IP address 130.23.43.20 and physical address

B2:34:55:10:22:10 has a packet to send to another host
with IP address 130.23.43.25 and physical address
A4:6E:F4:59:83:AB. The two hosts are on the same
Ethernet network. Show the ARP request and reply
packets encapsulated in Ethernet frames.

Solution
Figure 5 shows the ARP request and reply packets. Note
that the ARP data field in this case is 28 bytes, and that
the individual addresses do not fit in the 4-byte boundary.
That is why we do not show the regular 4-byte boundaries
for these addresses.
Figure 5 Example 1, an ARP request and reply
Figure 6 Proxy ARP
Figure 7 BOOTP client and server on the same and different networks
Note

DHCP provides static and dynamic

address allocation that can be
manual or automatic.
2 ICMP

The IP protocol has no error-reporting or error-

correcting mechanism. The IP protocol also lacks a
mechanism for host and management queries. The
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) has been
designed to compensate for the above two deficiencies.
It is a companion to the IP protocol.
Topics discussed in this section:
Types of Messages
Message Format
Error Reporting and Query
Debugging Tools
Figure 8 General format of ICMP messages
Note

ICMP always reports error messages to

the original source.
Figure 9 Error-reporting messages
Note

Important points about ICMP error messages:

❏ No ICMP error message will be generated in
response to a datagram carrying an ICMP error
message.
❏ No ICMP error message will be generated for a
fragmented datagram that is not the first fragment.
❏ No ICMP error message will be generated for a
datagram having a multicast address.
❏ No ICMP error message will be generated for a
datagram having a special address such as
127.0.0.0 or 0.0.0.0.
Figure 10 Contents of data field for the error messages
Figure 11 Redirection concept
Figure 12 Query messages
Figure 13 Encapsulation of ICMP query messages
 Example 2

Figure 14 shows an example of checksum calculation for

a simple echo-request message. We randomly chose the
identifier to be 1 and the sequence number to be 9. The
message is divided into 16-bit (2-byte) words. The words
are added and the sum is complemented. Now the sender
can put this value in the checksum field.
Figure 14 Example of checksum calculation
 Example 3

We use the ping program to test the server fhda.edu. The

result is shown on the next slide. The ping program sends
messages with sequence numbers starting from 0. For
each probe it gives us the RTT time. The TTL (time to
live) field in the IP datagram that encapsulates an ICMP
message has been set to 62. At the beginning, ping defines
the number of data bytes as 56 and the total number of
bytes as 84. It is obvious that if we add 8 bytes of ICMP
header and 20 bytes of IP header to 56, the result is 84.
However, note that in each probe ping defines the
number of bytes as 64. This is the total number of bytes in
the ICMP packet (56 + 8).
Example 3 (continued)
Figure 15 The traceroute program operation
 Example 4

We use the traceroute program to find the route from the

computer voyager.deanza.edu to the server fhda.edu. The
following shows the result:

The unnumbered line after the command shows that the

destination is 153.18.8.1. The packet contains 38 bytes: 20
bytes of IP header, 8 bytes of UDP header, and 10 bytes of
application data. The application data are used by
traceroute to keep track of the packets.
 Example 4 (continued)

The first line shows the first router visited. The router is
named Dcore.fhda.edu with IP address 153.18.31.254.
The first round-trip time was 0.995 ms, the second was
0.899 ms, and the third was 0.878 ms. The second line
shows the second router visited. The router is named
Dbackup.fhda.edu with IP address 153.18.251.4. The
three round-trip times are also shown. The third line
shows the destination host. We know that this is the
destination host because there are no more lines. The
destination host is the server fhda.edu, but it is named
tiptoe.fhda.edu with the IP address 153.18.8.1. The three
round-trip times are also shown.
 Example 5

In this example, we trace a longer route, the route to

xerox.com (see next slide). Here there are 17 hops
between source and destination. Note that some round-
trip times look unusual. It could be that a router was too
busy to process the packet immediately.
Example 5 (continued)
3 IGMP

The IP protocol can be involved in two types of

communication: unicasting and multicasting. The
Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is one
of the necessary, but not sufficient, protocols that is
involved in multicasting. IGMP is a companion to the
IP protocol.
Topics discussed in this section:
Group Management
IGMP Messages and IGMP Operation
Encapsulation
Netstat Utility
Figure 16 IGMP message types
Figure 17 IGMP message format
Table 1 IGMP type field
Figure 18 IGMP operation
Note

In IGMP, a membership report is sent

twice, one after the other.
Note

The general query message does not

define a particular group.
 Example 6

Imagine there are three hosts in a network, as shown in

Figure 19. A query message was received at time 0; the
random delay time (in tenths of seconds) for each group
is shown next to the group address. Show the sequence of
report messages.

Solution
The events occur in this sequence:
a. Time 12: The timer for 228.42.0.0 in host A expires,
and a membership report is sent, which is received by
the router and every host including host B which
cancels its timer for 228.42.0.0.
 Example 6 (continued)

b. Time 30: The timer for 225.14.0.0 in host A expires, and

a membership report is sent which is received by the
router and every host including host C which cancels its
timer for 225.14.0.0.
c. Time 50: The timer for 238.71.0.0 in host B expires,
and a membership report is sent, which is received by
the router and every host.
d. Time 70: The timer for 230.43.0.0 in host C expires,
and a membership report is sent, which is received by
the router and every host including host A which
cancels its timer for 230.43.0.0.
Figure 19 Example 6
Figure 20 Encapsulation of IGMP packet
Note

The IP packet that carries an IGMP

packet has a value of 1 in its TTL field.
Table 2 Destination IP addresses
Figure 21 Mapping class D to Ethernet physical address
Note

An Ethernet multicast physical address

is in the range
01:00:5E:00:00:00 to 01:00:5E:7F:FF:FF.
 Example 7

Change the multicast IP address 230.43.14.7 to an

Ethernet multicast physical address.

Solution
We can do this in two steps:
a. We write the rightmost 23 bits of the IP address in
hexadecimal. This can be done by changing the
rightmost 3 bytes to hexadecimal and then subtracting
8 from the leftmost digit if it is greater than or equal to
8. In our example, the result is 2B:0E:07.
 Example 7 (continued)

b. We add the result of part a to the starting Ethernet

multicast address, which is 01:00:5E:00:00:00. The
result is
 Example 8

Change the multicast IP address 238.212.24.9 to an

Ethernet multicast address.
Solution
a. The rightmost 3 bytes in hexadecimal is D4:18:09. We
need to subtract 8 from the leftmost digit, resulting in
54:18:09.
b. We add the result of part a to the Ethernet multicast
starting address. The result is
 Figure 22 Tunneling
No Physical Multicast Support Most WANs do not support physical multicast
addressing. To send a multicast packet through these networks, a process called
tunneling is used. In tunneling, the multicast packet is encapsulated in a unicast
packet and sent through the network, where it emerges from the other side as a
multicast packet.
 Example 9

We use netstat (see next slide) with three options: -n, -r,
and -a. The -n option gives the numeric versions of IP
addresses, the -r option gives the routing table, and the -a
option gives all addresses (unicast and multicast). Note
that we show only the fields relative to our discussion.
“Gateway” defines the router, “Iface” defines the
interface.

Note that the multicast address is shown in color. Any

packet with a multicast address from 224.0.0.0 to
239.255.255.255 is masked and delivered to the Ethernet
interface.
Example 9 (continued)
4 ICMPv6

We discussed IPv6 in previous session. Another

protocol that has been modified in version 6 of the
TCP/IP protocol suite is ICMP (ICMPv6). This new
version follows the same strategy and purposes of
version 4.

Topics discussed in this section:

Error Reporting
Query
Figure 23 Comparison of network layers in version 4 and version 6
Table 3 Comparison of error-reporting messages in ICMPv4 and ICMPv6
Table 4 Comparison of query messages in ICMPv4 and ICMPv6