Faculté de Génie

Branche 1

Sensors Course
D E D I C AT E D F O R 6 T H S E M E S T E R E N G I N E E R I N G S T U D E N T S
D E PA RT M E N T: M E C H A N I C A L & E L E C T R I C A L
I N S T R U C T O R : D R . M AY S S A H A J A R
2024-2025
Lecture 2 Outline
Introduction on Data acquisition:
◦ Sensors, Signals & Systems
◦ Sensors Classification
◦ Sensors Specs
◦ Measurement units & Symbol
Sensors, Signals & Systems

“A sensor is a device that detects and

responds to a signal or stimulus.”
Sensors, Signals & Systems
In an example of a fluid level-control
system, the sensor consists of both a
sight tube and the operator’s eye, which
together detect the fluid level. The sight
tube alone is not a sensor, nor is the eye
alone; only their combination forms a
functional sensor. The sensor's
performance, such as its speed of
response and phase characteristics,
depends on the design of the sight tube
and the system's requirements. Proper
sensor design ensures accurate and
timely detection, which is critical for
effective control systems. The sensor's
effectiveness must be evaluated as part
of the overall data acquisition system.
Sensors, Signals & Systems
1.Context Matters: A sensor doesn't operate in isolation. In the example, the sight tube
and the operator’s eye work together to form a functional sensor. Without the context of
the system (the fluid tank and control mechanism), neither component alone would be
effective.
2.System Requirements: The sensor's design (e.g., the sight tube's diameter) must align
with the system's needs. For instance, if the tube is too narrow, it may cause a lag in
detecting fluid level changes, which could be unacceptable in some applications.
3.Performance Evaluation: A sensor's effectiveness (e.g., response speed, accuracy) can
only be assessed within the system it serves. For example, a fast response might be
critical in preventing the tank from flooding or running dry.
4.Interdependence: The sensor is part of a larger data acquisition and control system. Its
role is to provide timely and accurate information, which is essential for the system to
function properly. If the sensor fails or underperforms, the entire system may fail.
In short, a sensor must be designed and evaluated as part of the system it serves because
its purpose, performance, and effectiveness are deeply tied to the system's requirements
and functionality.
Sensors, Signals & Systems
The natural sensors, like those found in living organisms, usually respond
with signals, having an electrochemical character; that is, their physical
nature is based on ion transport, like in the nerve fibers (such as an optic
nerve in the fluid tank operator).
In man-made devices, information is also transmitted and processed in
electrical form—however, through the transport of electrons. Sensors that are
used in artificial systems must speak the same language as the devices with
which they are interfaced. This language is electrical in its nature and a man-
made sensor should be capable of responding with signals where information
is carried by displacement of electrons, rather than ions.
Thus, it should be possible to connect a sensor to an electronic system
through electrical wires, rather than through an electrochemical solution or a
nerve fiber.
Sensors, Signals & Systems
“A sensor is a device that receives a stimulus and responds with an electrical signal”.
The stimulus is the quantity, property, or condition that is sensed and converted into
electrical signal. It is replaced by measurand, which has the same meaning, however with
the stress on quantitative characteristic of sensing.
The purpose of a sensor is to respond to some kind of an input physical property
(stimulus) and to convert it into an electrical signal which is compatible with electronic
circuits.
We may say that a sensor is a translator of a generally nonelectrical value into an
electrical value. When we say “electrical,” we mean a signal which can be channeled,
amplified, and modified by electronic devices.
The sensor’s output signal may be in the form of voltage, current, or charge. These may
be further described in terms of amplitude, frequency, phase, or digital code. This set of
characteristics is called the output signal format.
A sensor has input properties (of any kind) and electrical output properties.
Sensors, Signals & Systems
A sensor is an energy converter that transfers energy between the object being
measured and itself, enabling information transfer. Energy flow can be positive
(object to sensor) or negative (sensor to object), and even zero energy flow
carries information (e.g., equal temperatures). For example, a thermopile
infrared sensor produces positive or negative voltage depending on the
temperature difference between the object and the sensor, with zero voltage
indicating equal temperatures.
A sensor specifically converts any type of energy into electrical energy, while
a transducer converts one form of energy into another (e.g., a loudspeaker
converting electrical energy into sound). Transducers can act as actuators,
which are the opposite of sensors—they convert electrical signals into non-
electrical energy, such as an electric motor turning electrical energy into
mechanical motion.
Sensors, Signals & Systems
Transducers can be components of complex sensors. For example, a chemical
sensor may include a transducer that converts chemical reaction energy into
heat and a thermopile that converts heat into an electrical signal. Together,
these form a chemical sensor that produces an electrical response to a chemical
reaction. Complex sensors often combine one or more transducers with a direct
sensor, which directly converts stimuli into electrical signals using physical
effects like the photoeffect or Seebeck effect.
Sensors, Signals & Systems
Sensors are categorized into two types:
 Direct sensors : convert stimuli directly into electrical signals
 Complex sensors : require transducers before converting energy into
electrical signals.
Sensors do not operate in isolation; they are part of larger systems that may
include detectors, signal processors, memory devices, and actuators. They can be
intrinsic (monitoring internal states) or extrinsic (detecting external stimuli) and
are integral to data acquisition and control systems.
Sensors, Signals & Systems
 In a data acquisition system, sensors collect data from objects (e.g., cars,
liquids, or humans).
 Some sensors are placed directly on or inside the object, while others, like
noncontact sensors (e.g., radiation detectors or TV cameras), perceive the
object without physical contact.
 Sensors play a critical role in monitoring and controlling systems, often as
part of feedback mechanisms.
Sensors, signals & Systems
 Even in "noncontact" sensors, energy
transfer occurs between the sensor and the
object. Sensors in a data acquisition system
serve various roles: some monitor internal
system conditions while others detect
external stimuli.
 Sensors like ? and ? may require signal
conditioners to interface with electronic
circuits due to incompatible output formats.
Sensors can be passive (generate signals
without external energy, e.g., Sensors???)
or active (require external excitation, e.g.,
Sensor ?, like a thermistor).
 The number of sensors in a system can range
from one (e.g., a home thermostat) to
thousands (e.g., a space shuttle).
Sensors, signals & Systems
Sensor signals are processed through
a multiplexer (MUX), which connects
them to an analog-to-digital (A/D)
converter or directly to a computer for
digital signals.
The computer controls the system,
processes data, and may send commands
to actuators (e.g., motors, solenoids) to
act on the object.
Peripheral devices like displays, alarms,
and data recorders are also part of the
system.
Sensors, signals & Systems

For example, in a car-door monitoring system, door

sensors (switches) send digital signals to a
microprocessor, which alerts the driver via a display or
alarm.
Sensors, signals & Systems
In a more complex system, like an
anesthetic vapor delivery system,
multiple sensors (e.g., piezoelectric
sensors for vapor concentration, CO2
sensors, temperature/pressure
sensors) monitor and adjust anesthetic
levels. Data is multiplexed, digitized,
and processed by a microprocessor,
which controls actuators (valves) to
maintain the desired anesthetic
concentration, ensuring precise
delivery during surgery.
Sensors Classification
 Sensor classification schemes range from very simple
to the complex.
 Depending on the classification purpose, different
classification criteria may be selected.
Sensors Classification (1)
1.Passive Sensors: These do not require an external energy source and directly
generate an electric signal in response to an external stimulus. Examples include
thermocouples, photodiodes, and piezoelectric sensors. Most passive sensors are
direct sensors, converting stimulus energy into an electrical signal.
2.Active Sensors: These require an external power source, called an excitation
signal, to operate. The sensor modifies this signal to produce an output. Active
sensors are often called parametric sensors because their properties (e.g.,
resistance) change in response to external stimuli, and these changes are converted
into electrical signals. For example:
1. A thermistor measures temperature by detecting changes in resistance when an
electric current (excitation signal) is applied.
2. A resistive strain gauge measures strain by detecting changes in electrical resistance,
which also requires an external power source.

In both cases, the excitation signal is modulated by the sensor's properties, and this
modulation carries information about the measured value.
Sensors Classification (2)
1.Absolute Sensors: These measure a stimulus against an absolute physical
scale that is independent of measurement conditions. For example,
a thermistor measures temperature directly on the absolute Kelvin scale.
2.Relative Sensors: These produce signals relative to a specific reference or
baseline. For example, a thermocouple measures temperature differences
(gradients) across its wires, so its output voltage cannot indicate an absolute
temperature without referencing a known baseline.
In short, absolute sensors provide measurements tied to fixed scales (e.g.,
Kelvin), while relative sensors require a reference point to interpret their
signals (e.g., temperature gradients).
Sensors Classification (3)
Another way to look at a sensor is to consider all of its
properties:
 What it measures (stimulus/measurand)
 What its specifications are (characteristic-range-sensitivity…)
 What physical phenomenon it is sensitive to
 What conversion mechanism is employed
 What material it is fabricated from
 What its field of application is.
Sensors Classification (3)
Example
Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) oscillator Accelerometer:
Stimulus: Acceleration
Specifications: Sensitivity in frequency shift per gram of
acceleration,
short- and long-term stability in Hz per unit time, etc.
Detection means: Mechanical
Conversion phenomenon: Elastoelectric
Material: Inorganic insulator
Field: Automotive, marine, space, and scientific measurement
Sensors Classification (3)
Sensors Classification (3)
Sensors
Classification
(3)
Measureme
nt units (SI)
 SI units and their Symbols
Quantity Unit
Name Symbol Name Symbol
Unit
Length l meter m
Mass m kilogramme kg
Time t seconde s
Current i Ampere A
Temperature T Kelvin K

Material Quantity mole mol

Luminosity I candela cd
Complementary Units

Plan angle radian rad

Solid Angle stéradian Sr

 SI units and their Symbols
Derivative Units
Surface A, S Square meter m2
Volume V Cube meter m3
Frequency f hertz Hz
Speed v metre par seconde m/s
Force F newton N

Force Moment M Newton meter mN

Torque/ Moment
T Newton meter mN
of a couple
Dynamique
poiseuille Pi
Viscosity
voltage - ddp U volt V
Electromotive
E volt V
force
SI Units & Symbols
 SI units & Symbols
Acceleration g Meter per second m/s2
Acceleration
radian per second rad/s2
angulaire
Energy - Work W joule J
Power P watt Watt
Pressure -
P pascal Pa
Constraint
Heat Quantity Q joule J
Electrecity
Q coulomb C
Quantity
Energy W joule J
Active Power P watt W
 SI Units & Symbols
Apparente
S volt-ampere VA
Power
Reactive
Q volt-ampere-reactive VAR
Power
Inductance L henry H
Magnetic
H ampere per meter A/m
Field
Magnetic
B tesla T
Induction
Flux of
weber Wb
Induction
Luminence L candela per m2 Cd/m2
Transmissio
decibel dB
n
Nuclear
A curie Bq
Activity
 Multiple & Submultiple

Multiplier Prefix Symbole

Multiples
1024 yotta Y
1021 zetta Z
1018 exa E
1015 peta P
1012 téra T
109 giga G
106 méga M
103 kilo K
102 hecto h
10 deca da
 Multiple & Submultiple
Submultiples
10-1 deci d
10-2 centi c
10-3 milli m
10-6 micro
10-9 nano
10-12 pico p
10-15 femto f
10-18 atto a
10-21 zepto z
10-24 yocto y