UNIT IV

Interpretation
and Report
Writing
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 Meaning of Interpretation
Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the
collected facts after an analytical and/or experimental study. In
fact, it is a search for broader meaning of research findings.
The task of interpretation has two major aspects viz.,
(i) the effort to establish continuity in research through linking
the results of a given study with those of another, and
(ii) the establishment of some explanatory concepts.
“In one sense, interpretation is concerned with relationships
within the collected data, partially overlapping analysis.
Interpretation also extends beyond the data of the study to
include the results of other research, theory and hypotheses.”
Thus, interpretation is the device through which the factors that
seem to explain what has been observed by researcher in the
course of the study can be better understood and it also
provides a theoretical conception which can serve as a guide for
further researches.
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 Technique of Interpretation
The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps:
(i) Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has
found and he must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying
processes and must try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the
surface layer of his diversified research findings. In fact, this is the technique of
how generalization should be done and concepts be formulated.
(ii) Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered
while interpreting the final results of research study, for it may prove to be a key
factor in understanding the problem under consideration. (iii) It is advisable,
before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult someone having insight
into the study and who is frank and honest and will not hesitate to point out
omissions and errors in logical argumentation. Such a consultation will result in
correct interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility of research results.
(iv) Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering
all relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. He must
be in no hurry while interpreting results, for quite often the conclusions, which
appear to be all right at the beginning, may not at all be accurate.
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 Precaution in Interpretation
Researcher must pay attention to the following points for correct
interpretation:
(i) At the outset, researcher must invariably satisfy himself that (a) the data are
appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences; (b) the data
reflect good homogeneity; and that (c) proper analysis has been done through
statistical methods.
(ii) The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly
arise in the process of interpreting results. Errors can arise due to false
generalization and/or due to wrong interpretation of statistical measures, such
as the application of findings beyond the range of observations, identification
of correlation with causation and the like. Another major pitfall is the
tendency to affirm that definite relationships exist on the basis of confirmation
of particular hypotheses. In fact, the positive test results accepting the
hypothesis must be interpreted as “being in accord” with the hypothesis,
rather than as “confirming the validity of the hypothesis”. The researcher must
remain vigilant about all such things so that false generalization may not take
place. He should be well equipped with and must know the correct use of
4 statistical measures for drawing inferences concerning his study.
 (iii) He must always keep in view that the task of interpretation is very much
intertwined with analysis and cannot be distinctly separated. As such he must
take the task of interpretation as a special aspect of analysis and accordingly
must take all those precautions that one usually observes while going
through the process of analysis viz., precautions concerning the reliability of
data, computational checks, validation and comparison of results.
(iv) He must never lose sight of the fact that his task is not only to make
sensitive observations of relevant occurrences, but also to identify and
disengage the factors that are initially hidden to the eye. This will enable him
to do his job of interpretation on proper lines. Broad generalization should be
avoided as most research is not amenable to it because the coverage may be
restricted to a particular time, a particular area and particular conditions.
Such restrictions, if any, must invariably be specified and the results must be
framed within their limits.
(v) The researcher must remember that “ideally in the course of a research
study, there should be constant interaction between initial hypothesis,
empirical observation and theoretical conceptions. It is exactly in this area of
interaction between theoretical orientation and empirical observation that
opportunities for originality and creativity lie.” He must pay special attention
5 to this aspect while engaged in the task of interpretation.
 Significance of Report Writing
Research report is considered a major component of the research
study for the research task remains incomplete till the report has been
presented and/or written. As a matter of fact even the most brilliant
hypothesis, highly well designed and conducted research study, and
the most striking generalizations and findings are of little value unless
they are effectively communicated to others. The purpose of research
is not well served unless the findings are made known to others.
Research results must invariably enter the general store of knowledge.
There are people who do not consider writing of report as an integral
part of the research process. But the general opinion is in favor of
treating the presentation of research results or the writing of report as
part and parcel of the research project. Writing of report is the last
step in a research study and requires a set of skills somewhat different
from those called for in respect of the earlier stages of research. This
task should be accomplished by the researcher with utmost care; he
may seek the assistance and guidance of experts for the purpose.
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 Different Steps in Writing Report
The usual steps involved in writing report are:
(a) logical analysis of the subject-matter;
(b) preparation of the final outline;
(c) preparation of the rough draft;
(d) rewriting and polishing;
(e) preparation of the final bibliography; and
(f) writing the final draft.
Logical analysis of the subject matter:
It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the
development of a subject. There are two ways in which to develop
a subject (a) logically and (b) chronologically. The logical
development is made on the basis of mental connections and
associations between the one thing and another by means of
analysis. Logical treatment often consists in developing the
material from the simple possible to the most complex structures.
Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence
in time or occurrence. The directions for doing or making
7 something usually follow the chronological order.
Preparation of the final outline: It is the next step in writing the
research report “Outlines are the framework upon which long
written works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical
organization of the material and a reminder of the points to be
stressed in the report.
Preparation of the rough draft: This follows the logical analysis of
the subject and the preparation of the final outline. Such a step is of
utmost importance for the researcher now sits to write down what
he has done in the context of his research study. He will write down
the procedure adopted by him in collecting the material for his
study along with various limitations faced by him, the technique of
analysis adopted by him, the broad findings and generalizations and
the various suggestions he wants to offer regarding the problem
concerned.
Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft: This step happens to be
most difficult part of all formal writing. Usually this step requires
more time than the writing of the rough draft. The careful revision
makes the difference between a mediocre and a good piece of
writing. While rewriting and polishing, one should check the report
8for weaknesses in logical development or presentation.
 Preparation of the final bibliography: Next in order comes the task of
the preparation of the final bibliography. The bibliography, which is
generally appended to the research report, is a list of books in some
way pertinent to the research which has been done. It should contain
all those works which the researcher has consulted. The bibliography
should be arranged alphabetically and may be divided into two parts;
the first part may contain the names of books and pamphlets, and
the second part may contain the names of magazine and newspaper
articles.
The entries in bibliography should be made adopting the following
order: For books and pamphlets the order may be as under:
1. Name of author, last name first.
2. Title, underlined to indicate italics.
3. Place, publisher, and date of publication.
4. Number of volumes.
Example: Kothari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques, New Delhi, Vikas
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 1978.
Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last step. The final draft
should be written in a concise and objective style and in simple
language, avoiding vague expressions such as “it seems”, “there
9 may be”, and the like ones. While writing the final draft, the
researcher must avoid abstract terminology and technical jargon.
 Layout of the Research Report
The layout of the report means as to what the research report should
contain. A comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise
(A) preliminary pages; (B) the main text; and (C) the end matter.
(A) Preliminary Pages In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title
and date, followed by acknowledgements in the form of ‘Preface’ or
‘Foreword’. Then there should be a table of contents followed by list of
tables and illustrations so that the decision-maker or anybody interested
in reading the report can easily locate the required information in the
report.
(B) Main Text The main text provides the complete outline of the research report
along with all details. Title of the research study is repeated at the top of the first
page of the main text and then follows the other details on pages numbered
consecutively, beginning with the second page. Each main section of the report
should begin on a new page. The main text of the report should have the
following sections:
(i) Introduction;
(ii) Statement of findings and recommendations;
(iii) The results;
(iv) The implications drawn from the results; and
(v) The summary
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 (i) Introduction: The purpose of introduction is to introduce the
research project to the readers. It should contain a clear
statement of the objectives of research.
(ii) Statement of findings and recommendations: After
introduction, the research report must contain a statement of
findings and recommendations in non-technical language so
that it can be easily understood by all concerned. If the findings
happen to be extensive, at this point they should be put in the
summarized form.
(iii) Results: A detailed presentation of the findings of the study,
with supporting data in the form of tables and charts together
with a validation of results, is the next step in writing the main
text of the report. This generally comprises the main body of
the report, extending over several chapters.
(iv) Implications of the results: Toward the end of the main text,
the researcher should again put down the results of his
research clearly and precisely. He should, state the implications
that flow from the results of the study, for the general reader is
interested in the implications for understanding the human
11 behavior.
 Such implications may have three aspects as stated below:
(a) A statement of the inferences drawn from the present study which
may be expected to apply in similar circumstances.
(b) conditions of the present study which may limit the extent of
legitimate generalizations of the inferences drawn from the study.
(c) The relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new questions
raised by the study along with suggestions for the kind of research
that would provide answers for them.
(v) Summary: It has become customary to conclude the research
report with a very brief summary, resting in brief the research
problem, the methodology, the major findings and the major
conclusions drawn from the research results.
(C) End Matter At the end of the report, appendices should be
enlisted in respect of all technical data such as questionnaires,
sample information, mathematical derivations and the like ones.
Bibliography of sources consulted should also be given. Index
(an alphabetical listing of names, places and topics along with
the numbers of the pages in a book or report on which they are
mentioned or discussed) should invariably be given at the end of
the report. The value of index lies in the fact that it works as a
12 guide to the reader for the contents in the report.
 Types of Reports
Research reports vary greatly in length and type. In each
individual case, both the length and the form are largely
dictated by the problems at hand. For instance, business firms
prefer reports in the letter form, just one or two pages in
length. Banks, insurance organizations and financial institutions
are generally fond of the short balance-sheet type of tabulation
for their annual reports to their customers and shareholders.
Mathematicians prefer to write the results of their
investigations in the form of algebraic notations. Chemists
report their results in symbols and formulae. Students of
literature usually write long reports presenting the critical
analysis of some writer or period or the like with a liberal use of
quotations from the works of the author under discussion. In
the field of education and psychology, the favorite form is the
report on the results of experimentation accompanied by the
detailed statistical tabulations. Clinical psychologists and social
pathologists frequently find it necessary to make use of the
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case-history form.
  A technical report is used whenever a full written report of the
study is required whether for recordkeeping or for public
dissemination. A popular report is used if the research results have
policy implications.
(A) Technical Report In the technical report the main emphasis is
on (i) the methods employed, (it) assumptions made in the course
of the study, (iii) the detailed presentation of the findings including
their limitations and supporting data. A general outline of a
technical report can be as follows:
1. Summary of results: A brief review of the main findings just in two
or three pages.
2. Nature of the study: Description of the general objectives of study,
formulation of the problem in operational terms, the working
hypothesis, the type of analysis and data required, etc.
3. Methods employed: Specific methods used in the study and their
limitations. For instance, in sampling studies we should give
details of sample design viz., sample size, sample selection, etc.
4. Data: Discussion of data collected, their sources, characteristics
and limitations. If secondary data are used, their suitability to the
problem at hand be fully assessed. In case of a survey, the
14 manner in which data were collected should be fully described.
 5. Analysis of data and presentation of findings: The analysis of data
and presentation of the findings of the study with supporting data
in the form of tables and charts be fully narrated. This, in fact,
happens to be the main body of the report usually extending over
several chapters.
6. Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and the policy
implications drawn from the results be explained.
7. Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted be
prepared and attached.
8. Technical appendices: Appendices be given for all technical matters
relating to questionnaire, mathematical derivations, elaboration on
particular technique of analysis and the like ones.
9. Index: Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report
at the end.
(B) Popular Report The popular report is one which gives emphasis
on simplicity and attractiveness. The simplification should be
sought through clear writing, minimization of technical, particularly
mathematical, details and liberal use of charts and diagrams.
Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of
15 the popular report.
 A general outline of a popular report.
1. The findings and their implications: Emphasis in the report is
given on the findings of most practical interest and on the
implications of these findings.
2. Recommendations for action: Recommendations for action on
the basis of the findings of the study is made in this section of
the report.
3. Objective of the study: A general review of how the problem
arise is presented along with the specific objectives of the
project under study.
4. Methods employed: A brief and non-technical description of the
methods and techniques used, including a short review of the
data on which the study is based, is given in this part of the
report.
5. Results: This section constitutes the main body of the report
wherein the results of the study are presented in clear and non-
technical terms with liberal use of all sorts of illustrations such
as charts, diagrams and the like ones.
6. Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods
16 used, forms, etc. is presented in the form of appendices.
 Oral Presentation
At times oral presentation of the results of the study is
considered effective, particularly in cases where policy
recommendations are indicated by project results. The merit of
this approach lies in the fact that it provides an opportunity for
give-and-take decisions which generally lead to a better
understanding of the findings and their implications.
Oral presentation is effective when supplemented by various
visual devices. Use of slides, wall charts and blackboards is
quite helpful in contributing to clarity and in reducing the
boredom, if any. Distributing a board outline, with a few
important tables and charts concerning the research results,
makes the listeners attentive who have a ready outline on
which to focus their thinking. This very often happens in
academic institutions where the researcher discusses his
research findings and policy implications with others either in
a seminar or in a group discussion.
Thus, research results can be reported in more than one ways,
but the usual practice adopted, in academic institutions
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particularly, is that of writing the Technical Report and then
Mechanics of Writing a Research Report
 The following points deserve mention so far as the mechanics of writing a report
are concerned:
1. Size and physical design: The manuscript should be written on unruled paper
812″ × 11″ in size. If it is to be written by hand, then black or blue-black ink
should be used. A margin of at least one and one-half inches should be allowed
at the left hand and of at least half an inch at the right hand of the paper.
2. Procedure: Various steps in writing the report should be strictly adhered (All
such steps have already been explained earlier in this chapter).
3. Layout: Keeping in view the objective and nature of the problem, the layout of
the report should be thought of and decided and accordingly adopted.
4. Treatment of quotations: Quotations should be placed in quotation marks and
double spaced, forming an immediate part of the text. But if a quotation is of a
considerable length (more than four or five type written lines) then it should be
single-spaced and indented at least half an inch to the right of the normal text
margin.
5. The footnotes: Regarding footnotes one should keep in view the followings: (a)
The footnotes serve two purposes viz., the identification of materials used in
quotations in the report and the notice of materials not immediately necessary
to the body of the research text but still of supplemental value. (b) Footnotes are
placed at the bottom of the page on which the reference or quotation which they
identify or supplement ends. (c) Footnotes should be numbered consecutively, usually
beginning with 1 in each chapter separately. (d) Footnotes are always typed in single
18 space though they are divided from one another by double space.
 6. Documentation style: Regarding documentation, the first footnote
reference to any given work should be complete in its
documentation, giving all the essential facts about the edition
used. Such documentary footnotes follow a general sequence.
The common order may be described as under:
(i) Regarding the single-volume reference
Example: John Gassner, Masters of the Drama, New York: Dover
Publications, Inc. 1954, p. 315.
(ii) Regarding multi volumed reference
(iii) Regarding works arranged alphabetically
(iv) Regarding periodicals reference
(v) Regarding anthologies and collections reference
(vi) Regarding second-hand quotations reference
(vii) Case of multiple authorship
7. Punctuation and abbreviations in footnotes:
8. Use of statistics, charts and graphs:
9. The final draft:
10. Bibliography:
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11. Preparation of the index:
Precautions for Writing Research Reports
Research report is a channel of communicating the research findings to
the readers of the report. A good research report is one which does this
task efficiently and effectively. As such it must be prepared keeping the
following precautions in view:
1. While determining the length of the report (since research reports
vary greatly in length), one should keep in view the fact that it should
be long enough to cover the subject but short enough to maintain
interest. In fact, report-writing should not be a means to learning
more and more about less and less.
2. A research report should not, if this can be avoided, be dull; it should
be such as to sustain reader’s interest.
3. Abstract terminology and technical jargon should be avoided in a
research report. The report should be able to convey the matter as
simply as possible. This, in other words, means that report should be
written in an objective style in simple language, avoiding expressions
such as “it seems,” “there may be” and the like.
4. Readers are often interested in acquiring a quick knowledge of the
main findings and as such the report must provide a ready availability
of the findings. For this purpose, charts, graphs and the statistical
tables may be used for the various results in the main report in
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addition to the summary of important findings.
 5. The layout of the report should be well thought out and must be
appropriate and in accordance with the objective of the research problem.
6. The reports should be free from grammatical mistakes and must be
prepared strictly in accordance with the techniques of composition of
report-writing such as the use of quotations, footnotes, documentation,
proper punctuation and use of abbreviations in footnotes and the like.
7. The report must present the logical analysis of the subject matter. It must
reflect a structure wherein the different pieces of analysis relating to the
research problem fit well.
8. A research report should show originality and should necessarily be an
attempt to solve some intellectual problem. It must contribute to the
solution of a problem and must add to the store of knowledge.
9. Towards the end, the report must also state the policy implications
relating to the problem under consideration. It is usually considered
desirable if the report makes a forecast of the probable future of the
subject concerned and indicates the kinds of research still needs to be
done in that particular field.
10. Appendices should be enlisted in respect of all the technical data in the
report.
11. Bibliography of sources consulted is a must for a good report and must
necessarily be given.
12. Index is also considered an essential part of a good report and as such
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must be prepared and appended at the end.
 Intellectual Property: Introduction
Intellectual Property is a term which refers to and indicates a number of distinct
types of creations of the mind for which law confers certain property rights
upon its creator.
The jurisprudence developed on the concept of ‘Property’ has made it
abundantly clear that property does not just encompass tangible things, like a
house, a car, furniture, currency, investment etc and that these assets are not the
only kind of property which are subject matter of protection by law.
There are many other forms of intangible properties which are known with the
term ‘intellectual property’ that have been recognized by the law and thus
granted protection against any kind of infringement by a person other than its
rightful owner or a person authorized by such rightful owner.
Under the Intellectual Property Law, the owners of such intangible property
have been granted and conferred with certain exclusive rights over their
respective intangible assets/works, these include, musical, literary and artistic
works; discoveries and inventions; and words, phrases, symbols, and designs,
etc. Patent, Trademark, Copyright, and Designs rights are the broad four main
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categories of intellectual properties, though the domain of such assets is
 Intellectual Property Regime in India
India's IP laws set out procedures for both civil and
criminal proceedings, as does the Competition Act.
Criminal proceedings do not apply to patent and
design infringements. A disadvantage of civil litigation
is that you are unlikely to recover large damages, and
punitive damages against an infringer are rare.
IPR is required to safeguard creators and other
producers of their intellectual commodity, goods and
services by granting them certain time-limited rights
to control the use made of the manufactured goods.
The development of any society directly depends on
IPR and its policy framework. Lack of IPR awareness
results in the death of inventions, high risk of
infringement, economic loss and decline of an
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intellectual era in the country.
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