Steady-

State
Cornering
or

Vehicle
Handling
 Introduction

The cornering behavior of a motor vehicle is

performance mode often equated with handling.
“Handling” is a loosely used term meant to imply the
of a vehicle to driver inputs or the ease of control.
As such, handling is an overall measure of the
combination.
The driver and vehicle is a “closed loop” system—me
driver observes the vehicle direction or position and c
input to achieve the desired motion.
For purposes of characterizing only the vehicle, “open
is used.
Open loop refers to vehicle response to specific steerin
more precisely defined as “directional response” behav
The most used measure of open-loop response is
 Cont…

 Understeer gradient is a measure of performance u

state conditions, although the measure can be u
performance properties under conditions that are not
state (quasi-steady-state conditions).
Open-loop cornering, or directional response beha
examined in this section.
The approach is to first analyze turning behavior at lo
then consider the differences that arise under high-spee
The importance of tire properties will appear in th
cornering case and provide a natural point for system
the suspension properties influential to turning.
Low-Speed Turning
The first step to understanding cornering is to analy
speed turning behavior ofa motor vehicle.
 At low speeds (parking lot maneuvers) the tire
develop lateral
forces. Thus, they roll with no slip angle, and the v
negotiate a turn as illustrated in Figure . If the rear w
no slip angle, the center of the turn must lie on the p
the rear axle.
Likewise, the perpendicular from each of the front wh
pass through the same point i.e., the center of the turn
If they do not pass through the same point, the fro
“fight” each other in the turn, with each experiencing
(sideslip) in the turn.
Geometry of a turning veh
 Steer Angles
For proper geometry in the turn (assuming small angles), t
angles are given by

The average angle of the front wheels (assuming small an

as the Ackerman Angle.
The terms “Ackerman Steering” or “Ackerman Geometry” a
to denote the exact geometry of the front wheels.
The correct angles are dependent on the wheelbase of the
the angle of the turn
Steering Response

Deviations from the Ackerman geometry in the l

wheel steer angles can have a significant influence
wear.
Such deviations do not have a significant influence
response; however, they do affect the centering to
steering system.
 With correct Ackerman geometry, the steering tor
increase consistently with steering wheel angle, thus
driver with a natural feel in the feedback through
wheel.
If we consider the case of parallel steer — i.e., th
steer angles are equal for the left and right wheels —
torque grows with the steering wheel angle initially b
diminish beyond a certain point.

 Off-Tracking
The other significant aspect of low-speed turning is th
that occurs at the rear wheels. The off-tracking distan
calculated from simple geometry relationships as:
 Off-tracking is said to
occur when a vehicle
makes a turn and it
rear wheels do not
follow the same path
as its front wheels.
The magnitude of this
generally increases
with the spacing
between the axles of
the vehicle and
decreases for larger
radius turns.
 “Tractrix” equations

Off-tracking is a primary concer

design and operation of long w
vehicles such as straight trucks, bu
trailers. For articulated trucks, the g
equations become more complicated
known as “tractrix” equations.
 High-Speed Cornering
At high speed, the turning equatio
because lateral acceleration will be
To counteract the lateral accelera
tires must develop lateral forces
angles will be present at each wheel
 Tire Cornering Forces
Under cornering conditions in which the
develop a lateral force, the tire will also e
lateral slip as it rolls.
 The angle between its direction of headin
direction of travel is known as slip angle, α.
The lateral force, denoted by Fy, is c
“cornering force” when the camber angle is ze
At a given tire load, the cornering force grow
angle.
 At low slip angles (5 degrees or less), the re
is linear, hence, allowing the cornering fo
 Tire Cornering Forces Cont.

The proportionality constant, Cα, is known as the

stiffness,” and is defined as the slope of the c
versus α at α = 0.
A positive slip angle produces a negative force (to
the tire, implying that Cα must be negative; how
defines cornering stiffness as the negative of the
that Cα takes on a positive value.
The cornering stiffness is dependent on many var
size and type (radial versus bias-ply construction),
plies, cord angles, wheel width, and tread are
variables.
For a given tire, the load and inflation pressure ar
Tire cornering force properties
 Cornering Coefficient
Due to the strong dependence of cornering force o
cornering properties can also be described by the
coefficient,” which is the cornering stiffness divided b
The cornering coefficient, CCα, is given by:

The cornering coefficient is usually largest at

diminishing continuously as the load reaches its rated
& Rim Association rated load).
 At 100% load, the cornering coefficient is typically i
of 0.2 (lb cornering force per lb load per degree of slip
 Cornering Equations
The steady-state cornering equations are derived from th
of Newton’s Second Law along with the equation de
geometry in turns (modified by the slip angle conditions n
the tires).
For purposes of analysis, it is convenient to represent th
the bicycle model.
At high speeds, the radius of turn is much larger than th
of the vehicle. Small angles can be assumed, and th
between road wheel steer angles on the outside and
wheels can become negligible.
 For convenience, the two front wheels may be represente
wheel at a steer angle, δ, with a cornering force equiva
tires.
The same assumption is made for the rear wheels.
For a vehicle traveling forward with a speed of V, the sum
Cornering Equations Force Equili
Cornering Equations Moment Eqil
For the vehicle to be in a moment equilibrium about the
gravity, the sum of the moments from the front and rear late
must be zero.

Combining with the previous Force Equilibrium Equation;

Same way Fyf can be derived ( Replace b with C )

Cornering
of a
bicycle
model.
 Slip Angles

Using the definition of cornering stiffness –

Cornering Stiffness of front and rear wheels;
Steer Angle at
the Front
Wheel
 Understeer Gradient

Steer Angle can be written as,

K = Understeer gradient (deg/g)

ay = Lateral acceleration (g)

Understeer gradient
On a constant-radius turn, no change in st
will be required as the speed is varied. Specifi
steer angle required to make the turn will be e
to the Ackerman Angle, 57.3 L/R.
 Physically, the neutral steer case corresp
balance on the vehicle such that the “forc
lateral acceleration at the C.G. causes an
increase in slip angle at both the front and rea
On a constant-radius turn, the steer angle w
increase with speed in proportion to K (deg/g)
lateral acceleration in g′s.
 Therefore, the steer angle increases linearl
lateral acceleration and with the square of the
In the understeer case, the lateral accelerat
C.G. causes the front wheels to slip sidew
greater extent than at the rear wheels.
 To develop the lateral force at the fron
necessary to maintain the radius of turn,
wheels must be steered to a greater angle.
 On a constant-radius turn, the steer angle w
decrease as the speed (and lateral acceleration) is
 In this case, the lateral acceleration at the C.G.
slip angle on the rear wheels to increase more t
front.
 The outward drift at the rear of the vehicle turn
wheels inward, thus diminishing the radius of the t
The increase in lateral acceleration that follows
rear to drift out even further and the process
unless the steer angle is reduced to maintain th
the turn.
Change
of steer
angle
with
speed
 Change of steer angle with spee

Ref to Figure, With a neutral steer vehi

steer angle to follow the curve at any s
simply the Ackerman Angle.
With understeer, the angle increases w
square of the speed, reaching twice the initi
at the characteristic speed.
In the oversteer case, the steer angle de
with the square of the speed and becomes
what is known as the critical speed value.
 Characteristic Speed

For an understeer vehicle, the understeer level may

by a parameter known as the characteristic speed.
Characteristic speed is simply the speed at which th
required to negotiate any turn is twice the Ackerman A
 Critical Speed
In the oversteer case, a critical speed will exist abov
vehicle will be unstable.
The critical speed is given by the expression:
It must be remembered that K is negative suc
expression under the square root is positive and has a
Note that the critical speed is dependent on the whee
vehicle; for a given level of oversteer, long-wheelba
have a higher critical speed than short-wheelbase veh
An oversteer vehicle can be driven at speeds les
critical, but becomes directionally unstable at and
critical speed.
 Lateral Acceleration Gain
Inasmuch as one of the purposes for steering
is to produce lateral acceleration.
The Steer angle equation can be used to
performance from this perspective. And can
for the ratio of lateral acceleration, ay, to th
wheel angle, δ.
 The ratio is the lateral acceleration gain, give
 Note on Lateral Acceleration
Note that when K is zero (neutral steer), the lateral a
gain is determined only by the numerator and
proportional to speed squared.
When K is positive (understeer), the gain is diminis
second term in the denominator and is always less th
neutral steer vehicle.
Finally, when K is negative (oversteer), the second
denominator subtracts from 1, increasing the lateral a
gain.
 The magnitude of the term is dependent on the sq
speed, and subsequently approaches one when
speed reaches the critical speed.
 Yaw Velocity Gain
A second reason for steering a vehicle is to change
angle by developing a yaw velocity (sometimes c
rate”).
The yaw velocity, r, is the rate of rotation in headin
is given by:

The ratio represents a “gain” which is proportional to

the case of a neutral steer vehicle
Note on Yaw Velocity Gain
In the oversteer case the yaw velocity gain becomes
the vehicle speed reaches the critical speed.
In the case of the understeer vehicle, the yaw velo
with speed up to the characteristic speed, then begin
thereafter.
Thus, the characteristic speed has significance as
which the vehicle is most responsive in yaw.
Yaw
velocity
gain as a
function
of speed
 Sideslip Angle

From the discussion of turning behavior, it is eviden

the lateral acceleration is negligible, the rear wheel tra
of the front wheel.
 As lateral acceleration increases, however, the rear o
must drift outboard to develop the necessary slip an
rear tires.
At any point on the vehicle a sideslip angle may be de
angle between the longitudinal axis and the local
travel.
In general, the sideslip angle will be different at ever
car during cornering
Note that the speed at which the sideslip angle becom
Sideslip angle in a high-speed tur
 Static Margin
A term often used in discussions of handling is the
and, like understeer gradient or characteristic spee
measure of the steady-state handling behavior.
Static margin is determined by the point on the ve
side force will produce no steady-state yaw velocity (i.
steer point).
 We may go one step further and define a neutral
shown in Figure The neutral steer line is the locus o
x-z plane along which external lateral forces produ
state yaw velocity.
The static margin is defined as the distance the neutr
falls behind the C.G., normalized by the wheelbase. :
Neutral steer line on a vehic
 Relation for Static Margi
This relationship can be expressed as Static m
L
When the point is behind the C.G. the stati
positive and the vehicle is understeer.
At the C.G. the margin is zero and the vehicl
steer.
 When ahead of the C.G., the vehicle is overste
For passenger cars the static margin falls in t
0.05 to 0.07.
Suspension
Effects on
Cornering
 Introduction
The analysis of turning has shown that the
dependent on the ratios of load/cornering stiffnes
and rear axles.
 The ratios have the engineering units of deg/g a
called the “cornering compliance”.
The name arises from the fact that the ratio
number of degrees of slip angle at an axle per “g” o
imposed at that point.
Inasmuch as the lateral force in a turn is a
Alembert” force at the C.G., it is distributed at the
proportions to the weight.
Although the understeer gradient was derived for
vehicle in a turn, it can be shown that the gradie
 Introduction Cont.
In particular, oversteer vehicles have a stability limit
speed due to normal disturbances in straight-ahead trave
When the front axle is more compliant than the rea
vehicle), a lateral disturbance produces more sideslip at
hence, the vehicle turns away from the disturbance.
This is illustrated in Olley’s definitions for understeer an
If the rear axle exhibits more cornering compliance (o
rear of the vehicle drifts out and turns into the disturbanc
The lateral acceleration acting at the C.G. adds to th
force, further increasing the turning response and
instability.
 Introduction Cont.
Although tire cornering stiffness was used as t
developing the equations for understeer/overstee
multiple factors in vehicle design that may influence
forces developed in the presence of a lateral accelerat
Any design factor that influences the cornering force
a wheel will have a direct effect on directional respons
The suspensions and steering system are the prima
these influences.
 In this section the suspension factors affecting ha
discussed
Olley’s definitions for understeer/ov
 Roll Moment Distribution
For virtually all pneumatic tires the cornering fo
dependent on, and nonlinear with, load. This is i
because load is transferred in the lateral directio
cornering due to the elevation of the vehicle C.G. a
ground plane.
Figure shows a typical example of how lateral force va
vertical load.
For a vehicle with 800 lb of load on each wheel, about
lateral force will be developed by each wheel at the 5
angle (see Figure).
In hard cornering, if the lateral load transfer reduced th
load in the inside wheel to 400 lb while increasing it t
Lateral
force-
vertical
load
characteri
stics of
tires
Roll Moment –Lateral Force on Axle- Under steer / Ove

Consequently, the tires will have to assume a greater slip an

the lateral force necessary for the turn.
 If these are front tires, the front will plough out and t
understeer. If on the rear, the rear will slip out and the vehicle w
This mechanism is at work on both axles of all two-axle vehi
contributes to understeer or oversteer depends on the balance
distributed on the front and rear axles.
More roll moment on the front axle contributes to understeer
roll moment on the rear axle contributes to oversteer.
Auxiliary roll stiffeners (stabilizer bars) alter handling perform
through this mechanism—applied to the front axle for unders
rear for oversteer.
Force
analysis
of a
simple
vehicle
in
cornerin
g
 Roll Stiffness
The mechanics governing the roll moment applied to an a
in the model of Figure.
 All suspensions are functionally equivalent to the two
lateral separation of the springs causes them to develop
moment proportional to the difference in roll angle betwee
the axle. The roll stiffness is given by

where:
K = Roll stiffness of the suspension
ϕ

K = Vertical rate of each of the left and right springs

s

s = Lateral separation between the springs

 Roll Center
In the case of an independent suspension, the above exp
used by substituting the rate at the wheel for Ks and u
width as the separation distance.
When a stabilizer bar is present, the roll stiffness of th
added to the stiffness calculated above
The suspension is further characterized by a “roll center
which the lateral forces are transferred from the axle
mass.
 The roll center can also be thought of as the point o
which a lateral force application will produce no roll angl
point around which the axle rolls when subjected to a pure
Lateral Load Transfer
 Mechanisms of Lateral Load Tra

1. 2 Fy hr/t—Lateral load transfer due to corne

This mechanism arises from the lateral force
the axle and is thus an instantaneous e
independent of the roll angle of the body a
moment distribution.
2. 2 Kϕ ϕ/t—Lateral load transfer due to vehic
effect depends on the roll dynamics, and thus
changes in cornering conditions. It is directly de
front/rear roll moment distribution.
Force
analysi
s for
roll of a
vehicle
 The Roll Angle
The total vehicle must be considered to obtain the e
the roll moment distribution on the front and rear axles
we define a roll axis as the line connecting the roll c
front and rear suspensions, as shown in Figure. Now
about the roll axis in this case is:

With Small Angle assumption

 Roll Rate
The derivative of roll angle with respect to
acceleration produces an expression for the roll
vehicle.

The roll rate is usually in the range of 3 to 7 de

typical passenger cars.
Combining the expression for ϕ solution for the roll m
the front and rear axles can be obtained.
Roll Moments
 Roll Moment Distribution
In general, the roll moment distribution on vehicle
to be biased toward the front wheels due to
factors:
1. Relative to load, the front spring rate is usually
lower than that at the rear (for flat ride), which prod
bias toward higher roll stiffness at the rear. Ho
independent front suspensions used on virtually a
enhance front roll stiffness because of the effe
greater spread between the front suspension spring
2. Designers usually strive for higher front roll stiff
ensure understeer at the limits of cornering.
Cont.
3. Stabilizer bars are often used on the front axle to
front roll stiffness.
4. If stabilizer bars are needed to reduce body lean,
installed on either the front, or both the front and
should be used when adding a stabilizer bar only to the
of the potential to induce unwanted oversteer
 Cornering Force Developed on th

where:
Fy = Lateral force developed on the axle
Cα = Cornering stiffness of two tires, each at one-half t
α = Slip angle
To represent load sensitivity effect, the two tires (inside
relative to the turn) must be treated separately. The corne
of each tire can be represented by a second or higher-orde
and the lateral force developed by either will be given by …
Cont.

where:
F′ = Lateral force of one tire
y

C = Cornering stiffness of one tire

a = First coefficient in the cornering stiffness polyno
(lb /lb /deg)
y z

b = Second coefficient in the cornering stiffness pol

(lb /lb /deg)
y z2

F = Load on one tire (assumed equal on both tires i

z

analysis)
For a vehicle cornering, the lateral force of both tires, Fy
+
 Camber Change
The inclination of a wheel outward from the body is
camber angle. Camber on a wheel will produce a
known as “camber thrust.
 Influence of Camber
Camber angle produces much less lateral force than s
angle.
About 4 to 6 degrees of camber are required to produ
the same lateral force as 1 deg. of slip angle on a bia
ply tire.
Camber stiffness of radial tires is generally lower th
that for bias-ply tires; hence, as much as 10 to
degrees are required on a radial tire.
Camber thrust is additive to the cornering force fro
slip angle and therefore affects understeer.
Cont..

Camber thrust of bias-ply tires is strongly affected by

inflation pressure, although not so for radial tires, and
it is relatively insensitive to load and speed for both
radial and bias tires.
Camber angles are small on solid axles, and at bes
only change the lateral forces by 10% or less.
On independent suspensions, however, camber can
play an important role in cornering.
Camber changes both as a result of body roll as we
as the normal camber change in suspension
jounce/rebound.
 Camber change in cornering of a
vehicle.

+
Camber Angle and Camber
Gradient
Lateral Force – Side slip & Camber
Camber Influence on Steering Angle _ Understeer Coeffi
 Roll Steer
When a vehicle rolls in cornering, the suspen
kinematics may be such that the wheels steer.
Roll steer is defined as the steering motion of the fron
rear wheels with respect to the sprung mass that is du
the rolling motion of the sprung mass.
 Consequently, roll steer effects on handling lag the s
input, awaiting roll of the sprung mass.
The steer angle directly affects handling as it alters
angle of the wheels with respect to the direction of trav
Let “ε” be the roll steer coefficient on an axle (degr
steer/degree roll). Using techniques similar to what
used in the previous section, we can derive
understeer gradient contribution from roll steer as:
Comments on Roll Steer Coefficient

 A positive roll steer coefficient causes the wheels to

to the right in a right-hand roll.
Inasmuch as a right-hand roll occurs when the vehic
turning to the left, positive roll steer on the front
steers out of the turn and is understeer.
Conversely, positive roll steer on the rear axl
oversteer.
On solid axles the suspension will allow the axle to
about an imaginary axis which may be inclined
respect to the longitudinal axis of the vehicle.
Cont…
The kinematics of the suspension, regardless of design, may
envisioned as functionally equivalent to leading or trailing
systems, meaning the roll axis inclination is equal to that of
arms.
Given an initial inclination angle, β, on the arms, as the body r
the arm on the inside wheel rotates downward while the arm on
outside wheel rotates upward. ( Ref Fig)
If the initial orientation of a rear axle trailing arm is ang
downward, the effect of the trailing arm angle change is to pull
inside wheel forward while pushing the outside wheel rearward.
This produces roll steer of the solid axle contributing to overstee
The roll steer coefficient is equal to the inclination angle (ε =
radians) of the trailing arms.
On a rear trailing arm system, roll understeer is achieved
keeping the transverse pivots of the trailing arms below the wh
center. (Ref Fig)
Roll steer with a solid axle.
Influence of rear axle trailing arm angle on
understeer
With independent suspensions the
steer coefficient must be evaluated
the kinematics of the suspension.
steered wheels, the interactions with
steering system must also be conside
 Lateral Force Compliance Steer

With the soft bushings used in suspension linkages for NV

reasons, there is the possibility of steer arising from later
compliance in the suspension.
 With the simple solid axle, compliance steer can b
represented as rotation about a yaw center( Fig) With
forward yaw center on a rear axle, the compliance allow
the axle to steer toward the outside of the turn, resulting
oversteer.
 Conversely, a rearward yaw center results in understeer.
On a front axle, just the opposite is true—a rearward ya
center is over steer, and a forward yaw center is understee
Steer due to lateral compliance in the
suspension
Understeer coefficient from lateral force compliance
steer

The handling influence of lateral force compliance

steer can be quantified by defining an appropriate
coefficient as follows:

where: δc = Steer angle and Fy = Lateral force

The lateral force experienced on an axle is the load on
the axle times the lateral acceleration. Thus, on the
front axle:
 Aligning Torque
The aligning torque experienced by the tires on
vehicle always resists the attempted turn, making it t
source of an understeer effect.
 Aligning torque is the manifestation of the fact that t
lateral forces are developed by a tire at a point behi
the tire center.
This distance is known as the “pneumatic trail (p).”
The direct handling influence can be determined
deriving the turning equations with the assumption th
the lateral forces are developed not at the wheels, but
a distance “p” behind each wheel.
The under steer Coefficient for Aligning Torque

The understeer term obtained is:

Because the Cα values are positive, the aligning torq

is positive (understeer)
and cannot ever be negative (oversteer).
The understeer due to this mechanism is normally
0.5 deg/g. However, aligning torque is indirectly respo
additional, and more significant, understeer me
through its influence on the steering system.
These mechanisms will be discussed with the steering
Effect of Tractive Forces on Corner
 The turning analysis developed at the outset o
chapter does not consider the potential effects of
forces present at the wheels.
 We will now look at the case of drive forces prese
front and rear wheels to develop the general equ
showing their influence.
With drive forces, the “bicycle” model for turning is s
in Figure
 The application of Newton’s Second Law in the l
direction takes the form:
+Cornering Model W Co
gM
wi
Tra
Fo
Final Form of Turning Equation
considering the Tractive Force
OBSERVATIONS on Term 1

This is the Ackerman steer angle altered by the tractive force on the fro
axle (rear tractive force does not show up here).
•• If Fxf is positive (drive force applied in a FWD) it reduces the required
steer angle for low-speed maneuvers, and accounts for the sense that F
“pulls” a vehicle around in low-speed maneuvers.
•• If Fxf is negative (equivalent to rolling resistance on a RWD or engine
drag on a FWD) it tends to increase the required steer angle for turning.
•• When front wheels spin on snow or ice, tractive force is still produced
Cαf goes to zero. In that case the denominator of the term becomes infin
suggesting that turns of zero radius can be made with virtually no steer
angle.
This accounts for the “trick” of turning a FWD vehicle within its own leng
on an icy surface by turning the wheel sharply and making them spin.
Observation on Term 2

Term 2 is the understeer gradient, unchanged

from its earlier form.
 Observation on Term 3
Term 3 represents the effect of tractive forces on
understeer behavior of the vehicle.
•• If Fxf is positive it causes an oversteer influence (p
the front of the vehicle into the turn).
This mechanism is an oversteer influence with a FW
the throttle-on case.
•• If Fxr is positive it causes an understeer influence
the same reasoning on a RWD.
•• On a 4WD vehicle these mechanisms would sug
that the rear axle should “over drive” the front axl
ensure understeer behavior.
+

S
o
Self Learning Topic : Experimental
Measurement of Understeer Gradient

Understeer gradient is defined b

SAE as “The quantity obtained b
subtracting the Ackerman stee
angle gradient from the ratio o
the steering wheel angle gradien
to the overall steering ratio