SLR15 Boolean algebra

• Use the following rules to derive or simplify Boolean

expressions: De Morgan's law, distribution,
association, commutation, double negation
Simplifying Boolean algebra
Expression: ¬A ∧ B ∧ C ∧ D V ¬A ∧ B ∧ C V • In our previous set of videos, we
explored the use of Karnaugh maps
¬D to simplify Boolean expressions.
Simplified expression: ¬D V ¬A ∧ B ∧ C
AB • However, it is also possible to
AB AB AB AB simplify expressions without them
by applying rules of simplification.
CD
• This is not only an important skill for
00 01 11 10 exams but also something you may
be required to do if an expression
contains more than four variables.
CD 00 1 1 1 1
• Although it is technically possible to
use a Karnaugh map to simplify
CD 01 expressions with five or more terms,
it becomes very hard to visualise and
increasingly prone to human error.
CD 11 1

CD 10 1 1 1 1
Rules and laws of Boolean simplification
• We will be going through the five
De Morgan's rules that the exam board wants you
law to know about, shown in red.

Four general • We will also cover the rule of

Distribution
AND rules
absorption, shown in orange –
although it is not in the specification,
it will really help you to know it.

Rules • We will also touch on the eight

general rules, shown in yellow.
Four general
OR rules and Association

laws • Again, these general rules are not

listed in the specification, but a solid
knowledge of them will help you
grasp many concepts across the
topic of Boolean algebra.
Absorption Commutation

Double
negation
General rules of Boolean simplification: AND rules
• These general rules are all quite
With AND, both terms have to be 1/TRUE basic and can be applied easily
AND without having to use more
for the result to be 1/TRUE.
advanced simplification techniques.

• These general rules fall into two

XɅ0= categories – AND and OR.
X AND 0 is the same as 0
0
1
Or to put it another way… X AND FALSE has to equal FALSE

XɅ1=
X AND 1 is the same as X
X
2
Or to put it another way… X AND TRUE has to equal the value of X

XɅX=
X AND X is the same as X
X
3
Or to put it another way… X AND X has to equal the value of X

X Ʌ ¬X =
X AND not X is the same as 0
0
4
General rules of Boolean simplification: OR rules
• These general rules are all quite
With OR, only one terms gas to be 1/TRUE basic and can be applied easily
OR without having to use more
for the result to be 1/TRUE.
advanced simplification techniques.

• These general rules fall into two

XV0= X OR 0 is the same as X categories – AND and OR.
X
5
Or to put it another way… X OR FALSE has to equal the value of X

XV1= X OR 1 is the same as 1

1
6
Or to put it another way… X OR TRUE has to equal TRUE

XVX= X OR X is the same as X

X
7
Or to put it another way… X OR X has to equal the value of X

X V ¬X = X OR not X is the same as 1

1
8
Understanding the general rules
• Work through the rules so they make
With AND, both terms have to be 1/TRUE logical sense to you.
AND
for the result to be 1/TRUE.
• Consider the rule: X Ʌ 0 = 0

• This is an AND rule – for the output

XɅ0= of an AND to be TRUE/1, both inputs
X AND 0 is the same as 0
0 need to also be TRUE/1.
1
Or to put it another way… X AND FALSE has to equal FALSE • Regardless of the value of X, the
output must be FALSE/0 as the other
The rule as presented here: input in this expression is FALSE/0.

10 • XɅ0=0
• Don’t forget, X is just a placeholder –
X it could be any variable. Also, the
Variations that match this rule: variables could be swapped, and this
0 • YɅ0=0 rule would still work.
• AɅ0=0
• 0ɅX=0
0
• 0ɅE=0
• etc…
Understanding the general rules
• Consider the rule: X Ʌ 1 = X
With AND, both terms have to be 1/TRUE
AND • Once again, this is an AND rule, so
for the result to be 1/TRUE.
both inputs need to be TRUE/1 for
the output to be TRUE/1.

XɅ1= • The rule states that one input is

X AND 1 is the same as X
X already TRUE/1, so the output has to
1 be the same as the second input.
Or to put it another way… X AND TRUE has to equal the value of X
• In other words, if X is FALSE/0, then
The rule as presented here: the output must be FALSE/0. If X is

10 • XɅ1=X TRUE/1, the output must be TRUE/1.

X • Again, X is just a placeholder – it

10 Variations that match this rule:
• YɅ1=Y
could be any variable. Also, the
X variables could be swapped, and this
• AɅ1=A rule would still work.
• 1ɅX=X
1
• 1ɅE=E
• etc…
Exam board rules and laws of Boolean simplification
• Next, let’s go over the five rules of
De Morgan's Boolean simplification that are
law stated in the specification:
o De Morgan's law
4 general o Distribution
Distribution
AND rules o Association
o Commutation
o Double negation

Rules • We will start by going over De

Morgan's law – and in doing so, we
4 general OR
rules and Association
will also introduce double negation
laws and association.

Absorption Commutation

Double
negation
De Morgan's law
• De Morgan's law is a way of
simplifying Boolean expressions by
inverting all the variables, changing
ANDs to ORs and vice versa, and
then inverting the whole expression.

• Essentially, De Morgan's law states:

“Either logical function AND or OR
may be replaced by the other, given
certain changes to the expression.”

• Using this law allows statements to

be simplified so they only use NAND
or NOR gates – this results in simpler
logic circuits which, in turn, makes it
easier to build microprocessors.

• As an example, solid-state drives are

made up of only NAND gates.
De Morgan's law
• There are two versions of this law.
¬(A ∧ B) ≡ ¬A V ¬B • De Morgan’s first law:
NOT(A AND B) is the same as (NOT A) OR (NOT B) NOT (A AND B)
is the same as (≡)
(NOT A) OR (NOT B)

• Augustus de Morgan (1806 - 71)

• de Morgan was a mathematician
and logician who formulated laws to
simplify Boolean expressions
• This had little practical use in his
lifetime but became of major
significance with the advent of
computers
¬(A ∨ B) = ¬A ∧ ¬B
 De Morgan's law
• There are two versions of this law.
¬(A ∧ B) ≡ ¬A V ¬B • De Morgan’s first law:
NOT(A AND B) is the same as (NOT A) OR (NOT B) NOT (A AND B)
is the same as (≡)
(NOT A) OR (NOT B)
A • If we draw the logic diagrams and
R associated truth tables for these
A
R X X Boolean expressions, we can prove
B S that the same set of inputs, A and B,
B results in the same output, X.

A B A∨B ¬(A ∧ B) ¬A ∧ ¬B ¬B ¬A

0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 0
 De Morgan's law
• There are two versions of this law.
¬(A ∧ B) ≡ ¬A V ¬B • De Morgan’s first law:
NOT(A AND B) is the same as (NOT A) OR (NOT B) NOT (A AND B)
is the same as (≡)
(NOT A) OR (NOT B)
A • If we draw the logic diagrams and
R associated truth tables for these
A
R X X Boolean expressions, we can prove
B S that the same set of inputs, A and B,
B results in the same output, X.

A B A∨B ¬(A ∨ B) ¬A ∧ ¬B ¬B ¬A
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
 De Morgan's law
• There are two versions of this law.
¬(A V B) ≡ ¬A ∧ • De Morgan’s first law:
¬B
NOT(A OR B) is the same as (NOT A) AND (NOT B) NOT (A AND B)
is the same as (≡)
(NOT A) OR (NOT B)
A • De Morgan’s second law:
R NOT (A OR B)
A
R X X is the same as (≡)
B S (NOT A) AND (NOT B)
B
• Again, the logic diagrams and truth
tables prove that these expressions
are logically equivalent.
A B A∧B ¬(A ∧ B) ¬A ∨ ¬B ¬B ¬A
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 0
 De Morgan's law
• There are two versions of this law.
¬(A V B) ≡ ¬A ∧ • De Morgan’s first law:
¬B
NOT(A OR B) is the same as (NOT A) AND (NOT B) NOT (A AND B)
is the same as (≡)
(NOT A) OR (NOT B)
A • De Morgan’s second law:
R NOT (A OR B)
A
R X X is the same as (≡)
B S (NOT A) AND (NOT B)
B
• Again, the logic diagrams and truth
tables prove that these expressions
are logically equivalent.
A B A∧B ¬(A ∧ B) ¬A ∨ ¬B ¬B ¬A
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
De Morgan's law
• Let's look at the steps for
¬(A V B) ≡ ¬A ∧ successfully applying De Morgan’s
law to turn ¬(A V B) into ¬A ∧ ¬B.
¬B
NOT(A OR B) is the same as (NOT A) AND (NOT B)
• Remember, you can only apply this
rule to one operator at a time.

¬(A V B)

Step NOT the terms on either side of the

2: operator. ¬(¬A ∧ ¬B)
Step
3:
Invert the result ¬¬(¬A ∧ ¬B)

Get rid of any double negation. (¬A ∧ ¬B)

Remove any unnecessary brackets. ¬A ∧ ¬B
De Morgan's law
• Let's look at the steps for
¬(A V B) ≡ ¬A ∧ successfully applying De Morgan’s
law to turn ¬(A V B) into ¬A ∧ ¬B.
¬B
NOT(A OR B) is the same as (NOT A) AND (NOT B)
• Remember, you can only apply this
rule to one operator at a time.

¬(A V B) • Step 1: Change OR to AND (or vice

versa).
Step
1:
Change OR to AND (or vice versa) ¬(A ∧ B)
Step NOT the terms on either side of the
2: operator. ¬(¬A ∧ ¬B)
Step
3:
Invert the result ¬¬(¬A ∧ ¬B)

Get rid of any double negation. (¬A ∧ ¬B)

Remove any unnecessary brackets. ¬A ∧ ¬B
De Morgan's law
• Let's look at the steps for
¬(A V B) ≡ ¬A ∧ successfully applying De Morgan’s
law to turn ¬(A V B) into ¬A ∧ ¬B.
¬B
NOT(A OR B) is the same as (NOT A) AND (NOT B)
• Remember, you can only apply this
rule to one operator at a time.

¬(A V B) • Step 1: Change OR to AND (or vice

versa).
Step
1:
Change OR to AND (or vice versa) ¬(A ∧ B) • Step 2: NOT the terms on either side
of the operator.
Step
2:
NOT the terms on either side of the
operator
¬(¬A ∧ ¬B)
Step
3:
Invert the result ¬¬(¬A ∧ ¬B)

Get rid of any double negation. (¬A ∧ ¬B)

Remove any unnecessary brackets. ¬A ∧ ¬B
De Morgan's law
• Let's look at the steps for
¬(A V B) ≡ ¬A ∧ successfully applying De Morgan’s
law to turn ¬(A V B) into ¬A ∧ ¬B.
¬B
NOT(A OR B) is the same as (NOT A) AND (NOT B)
• Remember, you can only apply this
rule to one operator at a time.

¬(A V B) • Step 1: Change OR to AND (or vice

versa).
Step
1:
Change OR to AND (or vice versa) ¬(A ∧ B) • Step 2: NOT the terms on either side
of the operator.
Step NOT the terms on either side of the
2: operator ¬(¬A ∧ ¬B) • Step 3: NOT everything that has
Step
NOT everything that has changed ¬¬(¬A ∧ ¬B) changed.
3:

Get rid of any double negation. (¬A ∧ ¬B)

Remove any unnecessary brackets. ¬A ∧ ¬B
De Morgan's law
• At first, it might appear that applying
¬(A V B) ≡ ¬A ∧ these steps has made the situation
worse, not better.
¬B
NOT(A OR B) is the same as (NOT A) AND (NOT B)
• However, we can now apply the rule
of double negation.

¬(A V B) • This rule states that two NOTs cancel

each other out. For example:
Step o NOT 0 = 1
1:
Change OR to AND (or vice versa) ¬(A ∧ B) o NOT NOT 0 = 0

Step NOT the terms on either side of the

2: operator ¬(¬A ∧ ¬B)
Step
3:
NOT everything that has changed ¬¬(¬A ∧ ¬B)
(¬A ∧ ¬B)
Get rid of any double negation

Remove any unnecessary brackets.

De Morgan's law
• Finally, we simply remove the
¬(A V B) ≡ ¬A ∧ unnecessary brackets.

¬B
NOT(A OR B) is the same as (NOT A) AND (NOT B) • So, by following these three steps,
we have an expression that logically
behaves exactly the same way but
now uses an AND instead of an OR.
¬(A V B)
Step
1:
Change OR to AND (or vice versa) ¬(A ∧ B)
Step NOT the terms on either side of the
2: operator ¬(¬A ∧ ¬B)
Step
3:
NOT everything that has changed ¬¬(¬A ∧ ¬B)

Get rid of any double negation (¬A ∧ ¬B)

¬A ∧ ¬B
Remove any unnecessary brackets
Using De Morgan's law
• Let's use what we have learned to
X = ¬(¬A ∧ ¬B) V B simplify the Boolean expression:
X = ¬(¬A ∧ ¬B) V B
X equals NOT(NOT A AND NOT B) OR B
• Remember, we can only apply De
Morgan’s law to one operator at a
X = ¬(¬A ∧ ¬B) V B time, either the AND or the OR.

Step Change OR to AND (or vice • In this case, we will convert the AND
1: versa)
X = ¬(¬A V ¬B) V B operator into an OR – so, we are
applying De Morgan’s law to the
Step NOT the terms on either side of part of the expression in red.
2: the operator
• Why this part? Simply because it has
Step more NOT operators surrounding it
NOT everything that has changed
3: and De Morgan’s law might provide
us with a way to get rid of some.
Using De Morgan's law
• We then NOT the terms on either
X = ¬(¬A ∧ ¬B) V B side of the operator.

X equals NOT(NOT A AND NOT B) OR B

X = ¬(¬A ∧ ¬B) V B
Step Change OR to AND (or vice
1: versa) X = ¬(¬A V ¬B) V B
Step
2:
NOT the terms on either side of
the operator
X = ¬(¬¬A V ¬¬B) V B
Step
NOT everything that has changed
3:
Using De Morgan's law
• We then NOT everything that has
X = ¬(¬A ∧ ¬B) V B been changed.

X equals NOT(NOT A AND NOT B) OR B

X = ¬(¬A ∧ ¬B) V B
Step Change OR to AND (or vice
1: versa) X = ¬(¬A V ¬B) V B
Step NOT the terms on either side of X = ¬(¬¬A V ¬¬B) V
X = ¬¬(¬¬ABV ¬¬B) V B
2: the operator

Step
NOT everything that has changed
3:
Using De Morgan's law
• We are done with De Morgan’s law,
X = ¬(¬A ∧ ¬B) V B and now our expression only
contains ORs.
X equals NOT(NOT A AND NOT B) OR B
• Having done so, we can easily spot
other areas to simplify.
X = ¬(¬A ∧ ¬B) V B • Let's start by removing all the double
Step Change OR to AND (or vice negation.
1: versa) X = ¬(¬A V ¬B) V B
Step NOT the terms on either side of X = ¬(¬¬A V ¬¬B) V
2: the operator B
Step
NOT everything that has changed
X = ¬¬(¬¬A V ¬¬B)
3: X = (AVVBB) V B

Get rid of any double negation

Using De Morgan's law
• We can now apply a new rule – the
X = ¬(¬A ∧ ¬B) V B rule of association. This rule allows
us to remove brackets from an
X equals NOT(NOT A AND NOT B) OR B expression and regroup variables.

• The following three expressions are

X = ¬(¬A ∧ ¬B) V B all logically equivalent:
o A V (B V C)
Step Change OR to AND (or vice o (A V B) V C
1: versa) X = ¬(¬A V ¬B) V B o AVBVC

Step NOT the terms on either side of X = ¬(¬¬A V ¬¬B) V • Consider these three phrases:
o “Craig and his friends James
2: the operator B and Tom are coming to the
party.”
Step
NOT everything that has changed
X = ¬¬(¬¬A V ¬¬B) o “James and Tom and their
friend Craig are coming to the
3: VB party.”
o “Craig, James and Tom are
X=AVBVB coming to the party.”

Get rid of any double negation X = (A V B) V B • Essentially, all these phrases mean
the same thing.
Using De Morgan's law
• Finally, we can use one of the
X = ¬(¬A ∧ ¬B) V B general OR rules we covered at the
start of the video.
X equals NOT(NOT A AND NOT B) OR B
• X V X = X – or to put it another way, X
OR X has to equal the value of X.
X = ¬(¬A ∧ ¬B) V B • We can apply this rule to B V B and
Step Change OR to AND (or vice simplify it to just B.
1: versa) X = ¬(¬A V ¬B) V B
• We have simplified this Boolean
Step NOT the terms on either side of X = ¬(¬¬A V ¬¬B) V expression from X = ¬(¬A ∧ ¬B) V B
to: X = A V B
2: the operator B
Step
NOT everything that has changed
X = ¬¬(¬¬A V ¬¬B)
3: VB

Get rid of any double negation X = (A V B) V B

X=AVB
Exam board rules and laws of Boolean simplification
• While discussing De Morgan’s law,
De Morgan's we also touched on two other rules
law you need to know about:
o Double negation
4 general o Association
Distribution
AND rules
• We are going to recap these two
rules in isolation, along with
distribution and commutation.
Rules
4 general OR
rules and Association

laws

Absorption Commutation

Double
negation
Double negation

What
does it reverse something twice, you end up
• If you
mean?
back where you started.
• NOT NOT A
• Double negative = A

In
Boolea
n
algebr ¬(¬A) = A
a

Real-
life
“I don’t not like you,”
analo
is the same as,
gy
“I like you.”
Association

What does it mean?

• This rule allows us to remove brackets from an expression and regroup the variables.

In Boolean algebra
The OR association rule: The AND association rule:
A V (B V C) ≡ (A V B) V C ≡ A V B V C A ∧ (B ∧ C) ≡ (A ∧ B) ∧ C ≡ A ∧ B ∧ C
A OR (B OR C) is the same as A AND (B AND C) is the same as
(A OR B) OR C is the same as (A AND B) AND C is the same as
A OR B OR C A AND B AND C

Real-life analogy
Commutation

What does it mean?

• The order of application of two separate terms is not important.

In Boolean algebra
The OR commutation rule: The AND commutation rule:
AVB ≡ BVA A∧B ≡ B∧A
A OR B is the same as A AND B is the same as
B OR A B AND A

Real-life analogy
Distribution

What does it mean?

• This rule allows us to multiply or factor out an expression.

In Boolean algebra
Real-life analogy
The OR distribution rule:
A ∧ (B V C) ≡ (A ∧ B) V (A ∧ C)
A AND (B OR C) is the same as
(A AND B) OR (A AND C)

The AND distribution rule:

A V (B ∧ C) ≡ (A V B) ∧ (A V C)
A OR (B AND C) is the same as
(A OR B) AND (A OR C)
Absorption
• We have covered the general rules,
De Morgan's as well as the five official rules listed
law in the specification. Finally, we will
cover one more rule: absorption
4 general
Distribution
AND rules • Although it is not mentioned in the
specification, a good understanding
of this rule will really help you when
simplifying Boolean expressions.
Rules
4 general OR
rules and Association

laws

Absorption Commutation

Double
negation
Absorption

What does it mean?

• Where the rule applies, the second term inside the bracket can be eliminated and absorbed by the term
outside the bracket.

In Boolean algebra
The OR absorption rule: The AND absorption rule:
A V (A ∧ B) ≡ A A ∧ (A V B) ≡ A
A OR (A AND B) is the same as A AND (A OR B) is the same as
A A

To apply the absorption rule, the following conditions must be met:

• The operators inside and outside the brackets must be different.

• The term outside the brackets must also be inside the brackets.
DO De Morgan’s Law

C ats Commutation

A nnoy Association

D ogs Distribution

A fter Absorption

D ark Double negation

 Simplifying expressions
Q Expression = Rule
1. X ∧ 0= Anything AND with 0 is false

2. X ∧ 1= Anything AND with 1 is just itself

3. X ∧ X= Anything AND with itself is just itself

4. X OR NOTX Anything OR with its inverse is always TRUE

5. X ∨ 0= Anything or with 0 is just itself

6. X ∨ 1= Anything OR with 1 is TRUE

7. X ∨ X= Anything OR with itself is just itself

8. X ∨ ¬X= Anything AND with its inverse is always FALSE

9. notnotx
Anything NOT TWICE is just itself
 Simplifying expressions
Q Expression = Rule
1. X ∧ 0= 0 Anything AND with 0 is false

2. X ∧ 1= X Anything AND with 1 is just itself

3. X ∧ X= X Anything AND with itself is just itself

4. 0 Anything AND with its inverse is always FALSE

5. X ∨ 0= X Anything AND with 0 is just itself

6. X ∨ 1= 1 Anything OR with 1 is TRUE

7. X ∨ X= X Anything OR with itself is just itself

8. X ∨ ¬X= 1 Anything OR with its inverse is always TRUE

9. X Anything NOT TWICE is just itself

 Simplifying
Commutative Laws:
AVB≡ BVA
A^B ≡ B^A

Distributive Laws:

¬P ^ (P v Q) 1. A ^ (B V C) ≡ A^B V A^C
A V B^C ≡ (A V B) ^ (A V C)

Associative Laws:
1. Multiply out (Distributive) (A V B) V C ≡ A V (B V C) ≡ A V B V C
(A^B)^C ≡ A^(B^C) ≡ A^B^C

¬P ^ P v ¬P ^ Q de Morgan’s Laws:
¬(A V B) ≡ ¬A^¬B
¬(A^B) ≡ ¬A V ¬B

2. ¬P ^ P = 0 OR Rules:
AV0≡A

0 v ¬P ^ Q
AV1≡1
AVA≡A
A V ¬A ≡ 1

em em b er
R Re-Write AND Rules:

u r m a th s : A^0≡0

yo A^1≡A

Expanding ¬P ^ Q 2.
A^A≡A
A^¬A ≡ 0

& Other Rules:

¬¬A ≡ A
!
Factorising
AVA^B≡A
A V ¬A ^ B ≡ A V B
 Commutative Laws:

¬(P v Q) ^ (¬P v Q) AVB≡ BVA

A^B ≡ B^A

Distributive Laws:
1. Use de Morgan’s 2. A ^ (B V C) ≡ A^B V A^C
A V B^C ≡ (A V B) ^ (A V C)

¬P^¬Q ^ (¬PvQ) Associative Laws:

(A V B) V C ≡ A V (B V C) ≡ A V B V C
2. Multiply out brackets (Distributive) (A^B)^C ≡ A^(B^C) ≡ A^B^C

de Morgan’s Laws:

¬P^¬Q^¬P v ¬P^¬Q^Q 1. ¬(A V B) ≡ ¬A^¬B

¬(A^B) ≡ ¬A V ¬B

OR Rules:
3. ¬P ^ ¬P = ¬P AV0≡A
AV1≡1

¬P^¬Q v ¬P^¬Q^Q AVA≡A

A V ¬A ≡ 1

4. ¬Q ^ Q = 0 5.
AND Rules:
A^0≡0
A^1≡A

¬P^¬Q v ¬P^0 3.
4.
A^A≡A
A^¬A ≡ 0

5. ¬p ^ 0 = 0 Other Rules:
¬¬A ≡ A
AVA^B≡A

¬P^¬Q A V ¬A ^ B ≡ A V B
 Commutative Laws:
AVB≡ BVA

¬(P v ¬Q) ^ (¬P v Q) A^B ≡ B^A

Distributive Laws:
2. A ^ (B V C) ≡ A^B V A^C
1. Use de Morgan’s A V B^C ≡ (A V B) ^ (A V C)

¬P^Q ^ (¬PvQ) Associative Laws:

(A V B) V C ≡ A V (B V C) ≡ A V B V C
(A^B)^C ≡ A^(B^C) ≡ A^B^C

2. Multiply out brackets (Distributive) de Morgan’s Laws:

1. ¬(A V B) ≡ ¬A^¬B

¬P^Q^¬P v ¬P^Q^Q ¬(A^B) ≡ ¬A V ¬B

OR Rules:
AV0≡A
3. ¬P ^ ¬P = ¬P (& same for Q) AV1≡1
4. AVA≡A

¬P^Q v ¬P^Q A V ¬A ≡ 1

AND Rules:
4. ¬P^Q v ¬P^Q = ¬P^Q A^0≡0
A^1≡A
3. A^A≡A

¬P^Q A^¬A ≡ 0

Other Rules:
¬¬A ≡ A
AVA^B≡A
A V ¬A ^ B ≡ A V B