Remote Sensing

BE E&TC 2019 Elective IV

Unit IV Active Remote Sensing

Microwave Remote Sensing: Active and Passive Systems,

Advantages, Platforms and Sensors, Microwave Radiation and
Simulation, Principles of Radar – Resolution, Range, Angular
Measurements, Microwave Scattering, Imagery – characteristics
and Interpretation; Definitions of LiDAR - Concepts and its
applications
Microwave Remote Sensing
An increasing amount of valuable environmental and resource information is being derived
from sensors that operate in the microwave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum

the microwave portion of the spectrum includes wavelengths within the approximate range of
1 mm to 1 m.

There are two distinctive features that characterize microwave energy from a remote sensing
standpoint:
1. Microwaves are capable of penetrating the atmosphere under virtually all conditions.
Depending on the wavelengths involved, microwave energy can “see through” haze, light rain
and snow, clouds, and smoke.
2. Microwave reflections or emissions from earth materials bear no direct relationship to their
counterparts in the visible or thermal portions of the spectrum. For example, surfaces that
appear “rough” in the visible portion of the spectrum may be “smooth” as seen by
microwaves.
Mapping
Floods in
Kancheepuram
(Tamil Nadu)
using Sentinel-
1 Satellite
Images (24th
November
2015) - India
What Is Microwave Remote Sensing?

The classification of microwave remote sensing includes active and passive types,
based on the principle of either transmitting and receiving signals or receiving only.

Unlike shorter wavelengths, they break through almost any atmospheric

conditions. Their insusceptibility to aerosols enables monitoring almost in any
weather and at any time.

Disaster monitoring and management applications.

Passive Microwave Remote Sensing
Passive microwave sensing checks microwave emissions from targets. A passive sensor like a
radiometer or scanner distinguishes natural energy and records it, with the difference that its
antenna detects microwaves in particular, not other, shorter waves. The method enables
specialists to understand the temperature and moisture of the target via certain correlations with
the radiation quantity. The energy detected by this type of sensor is emitted, transmitted, or
reflected.
The method provides data for many branches like meteorology, hydrology, agriculture, ecology,
oceanography. In particular, it enables scientists to check soil moisture, atmospheric water and
ozone concentrations; to distinguish oil spills and address water pollution. Sensing the emission of
the atmosphere is called as atmospheric sounding.

Passive microwave sensors are generally known as microwave radiometers.

Though microwaves
are less affected by the
atmosphere, even in
this region there are
preferred windows for
observation, especially
for passive sensing.
 Satellite Borne Microwave Radiometers
An imaging microwave radiometer essentially
consists of

● An antenna, which receives the incoming

radiation,
● A scanning mechanism - mechanical or
electrical
● A receiver and associated electronics,
which detects and amplifies the received
radiation and produce a voltage output,
● In-flight calibration systems
● Auxiliary logic systems providing signals
for timing, multiplexing data and
formatting, and
● House-keeping systems, which monitor
various temperatures and voltages.
Active Microwave Remote Sensing
Active microwave sensors radiate their own signal to the target and check the bounced amount.
Different backscattering properties of different targets, as well as the traveling time, make it
possible to outline them and find out the distance, knowing how long it takes the signal to travel to
and back. The quantity also depends on the illumination angle and the surface
evenness/roughness.

The most typical example of such devices is RADAR (operating with microwaves). Radars used
for remote sensing can be broadly classified as

● Nadir looking, wherein the antenna sends a pulse straight down at the nadir below the
platform eg Altimeteres
● Side Looking, wherein the sensor sends pulses pulses away from the nadir - side looking. Eg
Side Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) and Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)

The technology is particularly beneficial to aircraft/spacecraft industries, marine sciences, and

meteorology, to mention a few.
 Altimeters
The basic principle of an altimeter is illustrated in the
adjacent figure. A short duration pulse of known
power is transmitted towards the nadir of the satellite
(platform). This is reflected at the earth’s surface and
then received back at the satellite. If t is the time
taken for the two-way trip of the pulse, and h the
height of the satellite above the surface of the earth
(scattering surface), then

2h = ct ; h = ½*ct

Where c is the speed of the light.

Knowing the location of the satellite in space relative to the center of the earth, the height of the surface in
geodetic coordinates can be determined.
 Altimeters
Satellite-borne microwave altimeters for earth observation
are generally used for oceanographic studies; thus, they
measure sea surface elevation, from which surface
geostrophic currents can be inferred. In addition, near-
surface wind speed and significant wave height can be
determined from the power and shape of the returned
signal.

There are two modes of operation of a radar altimeter.

● Beam - limited mode - Narrow Beam

● Pulse - limited mode - Broad Beam

Antenna beamwidth defines footprint.

OSTM/Jason-2, or
Ocean Surface
Topography
Mission/Jason-2
satellite, was an
international Earth
observation satellite
altimeter joint mission
for sea surface height
measurements
between NASA and
National Centre for
Space Studies
(CNES), France.
Applications & Benefits
● Apart from a variety of implementations, active remote sensors basically have no
restrictions as to research conditions. Active types of remote sensing systems fully
function at any time of the day as they do not require sunlight, and they are relatively
independent of atmospheric scatterings.
● Various types of remote sensing technology find implementations both in scientific
branches and far more practical industries. Shuttle Radar Topography Mission collected
the Earth’s elevation data. Lidar active remote sensing in the sky assisted in the
elaboration of digital models of our planet’s surfaces.
● Data acquired with remote sensing instruments serve agriculturalists and foresters. They
are critical in hard-to-reach places in marine sciences and rescue missions.
● Sounders assist in developing weather forecasts with vertical profiles of humidity,
precipitations, temperature, and absence/presence of clouds.
 ● Radars and lasers are breathtaking attributes of sci-fi movies no longer as it was just a few
decades ago. These innovations have been widely used as types of sensors in remote
sensing since science made a giant step ahead.
● Over the span of time, remote sensing technology found its applications in various spheres
of human life. Farmers benefit from the types of remote sensing satellites on a daily basis.

Many important decisions ground on the data from RADARSAT, TerraSAR-X, SRTM, EOS, ERS,
Sentinel, LANDSAT, RISAT among others.
Platforms for Microwave RS
Microwave RS can be conducted from both platforms;

● Satellite
● Air-plane

Active microwave is performed either from satellites or aeroplanes, but passive microwave
generally perform only for satellite, because passive microwave used for earth’s atmosphere data
collection.
Remote Sensing Instruments / Sensors
Each active sensor in remote sensing directs its signal to the object and then checks the response – the
received quantity. The majority of devices employ microwaves since they are relatively immune to weather
conditions. Active remote sensing techniques differ by what they transmit (light or waves) and what they
determine (e.g., distance, height, atmospheric conditions, etc.).
● Radar is a sensor assisting in ranging with radio signals. Its specific feature is the antenna emitting
impulses. When the energy flow in radar active remote sensing meets an obstacle, it scatters back to
the sensor to some degree. Based on its amount and traveling time, it is possible to estimate how far
the target is.
● Lidar determines distance with light. Lidar active remote sensing implies transmitting light impulses and
checking the quantity retrieved. The target location and distance are understood by multiplying the time
by the speed of light.
● Laser altimeter measures elevation with lidar.
● Sounder studies weather conditions vertically by emitting impulses, in case it falls to the active
category.
● Scatterometer is a specific device to measure bounced (backscattered) radiation.
Remote Sensing Instruments / Sensors

Electromagnetic radiation in the microwave wavelength region is used in remote sensing to

provide useful information about the Earth's atmosphere, land and ocean.

A microwave radiometer is a passive device which records the natural microwave emission from the
earth. It can be used to measure the total water content of the atmosphere within its field of view.

A radar altimeter sends out pulses of microwave signals and record the signal scattered back from the
earth surface. The height of the surface can be measured from the time delay of the return signals.

A wind scatterometer can be used to measure wind speed and direction over the ocean surface. it
sends out pulses of microwaves along several directions and records the magnitude of the signals
backscattered from the ocean surface. The magnitude of the backscattered signal is related to the ocean
surface roughness, which in turns is dependent on the sea surface wind condition, and hence the wind
speed and direction can be derived. orne platforms to generate high resolution images of the earth
surface using microwave energy.
Active microwave sensors are generally divided into two distinct categories: imaging and non-imaging.

● The most common form of imaging active microwave sensors is RADAR.

● Non-imaging microwave sensors include altimeters and scatterometers.

Imaging radar methods attempt to calculate a map-like image from the received information. Classic
applications are weather radar and military air surveillance radar. Non-imaging radar methods make their
measurement results available as pure numerical values

Altimeters and scatterometers can normally be expected to achieve ground footprint sizes in the order of
tens of kilometres. As with passive sensors, the non-imaging radar systems are therefore also primarily
used for global-scale measurements.

Operational properties of microwave altimeters make them suitable for very small average height
variations over large horizontal distances, so are most appropriate for surface areas where local slopes
are comparatively low and measuring small changes in average height (in space or time) are important. It
is for these reasons that the value of spaceborne altimeters and scatterometers has mostly focused on
applications in oceanography and the mapping of the two large ice-sheets: Greenland and Antarctica.
Active sensors incorporate an additional factor that can be utilised — the timing of the return pulse
to measure distance. Active radar systems can therefore provide two very different types of
information: firstly the time delay in the echo which provides distance information, and secondly
the properties of the echo such as intensity and polarisation. Instruments designed to focus on
making accurate measurements of range (or, more exactly, altitude) using the time delay from
nadir-directed echoes are known as altimeters, whereas instruments that focus on accurately
recording the echo characteristics (such as radar cross-sections) are known as scatterometers.
Rain radars are included in the latter category.

Active microwave systems suffer from the same limitations of spatial resolution as passive
sensors, the long wavelengths meaning that large antennas or high frequencies must be used
even for moderate resolutions.
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
In synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imaging, microwave pulses are transmitted by an antenna
towards the earth surface. The microwave energy scattered back to the spacecraft is measured.
The SAR makes use of the radar principle to form an image by utilising the time delay of the
backscattered signals.

In real aperture radar imaging (SLAR),

the ground resolution is limited by the
size of the microwave beam sent out
from the antenna. Finer details on the
ground can be resolved by using a
narrower beam. The beam width is
inversely proportional to the size of the
antenna, i.e. the longer the antenna,
the narrower the beam.
It is not feasible for a spacecraft
to carry a very long antenna
which is required for high
resolution imaging of the earth
surface. To overcome this
limitation, SAR capitalises on
the motion of the spacecraft to
emulate a large antenna (about
4 km for the ERS SAR) from the
small antenna (10 m on the
ERS satellite) it actually carries
on board.

European Remote Sensing (ERS) Satellite - https://earth.esa.int/eogateway/missions/ers

Imaging geometry for a
typical strip-mapping
synthetic aperture radar
imaging system. The
antenna's footprint
sweeps out a strip
parallel to the direction of
the satellite's ground
track.
Interaction between Microwaves and Earth's Surface
When microwaves strike a surface, the proportion of energy scattered back to the sensor depends
on many factors:

● Physical factors such as the dielectric constant of the surface materials which also depends
strongly on the moisture content;
● Geometric factors such as surface roughness, slopes, orientation of the objects relative to
the radar beam direction;
● The types of land cover (soil, vegetation or man-made objects).
● Microwave frequency, polarisation and incident angle.
SAR Imaging
The ability of microwave to penetrate clouds, precipitation, or land surface cover depends on its
frequency. Generally, the penetration power increases for longer wavelength (lower frequency).

The SAR backscattered intensity generally increases with the surface roughness. However, "roughness"
is a relative quantity. Whether a surface is considered rough or not depends on the length scale of the
measuring instrument. If a meter-rule is used to measure surface roughness, then any surface fluctuation
of the order of 1 cm or less will be considered smooth. On the other hand, if a surface is examined under
a microscope, then a fluctuation of the order of a fraction of a millimiter is considered very rough. In SAR
imaging, the reference length scale for surface roughness is the wavelength of the microwave. If the
surface fluctuation is less than the microwave wavelength, then the surface is considered smooth. For
example, little radiation is backscattered from a surface with a fluctuation of the order of 5 cm if a L-band
(15 to 30 cm wavelength) SAR is used and the surface will appear dark. However, the same surface will
appear bright due to increased backscattering in a X-band (2.4 to 3.8 cm wavelength) SAR image.
Both the ERS and
RADARSAT SARs use
the C band microwave
while the JERS SAR
uses the L band. The C
band is useful for
imaging ocean and ice
features. However, it
also finds numerous
land applications. The
L band has a longer
wavelength and is
more penetrating than
the C band. Hence, it is
more useful in forest
and vegetation study
as it is able to
penetrate deeper into
the vegetation canopy.
Microwave Polarisation in Synthetic Aperture Radar

The microwave polarisation refers to the orientation of the electric field vector of the transmitted beam with respect to the
horizontal direction. If the electric field vector oscillates along a direction parallel to the horizontal direction, the beam is
said to be "H" polarised. On the other hand, if the electric field vector oscillates along a direction perpendicular to the
horizontal direction, the beam is "V" polarised.

After interacting with the earth surface, the polarisation state may be altered. So the backscattered microwave energy
usually has a mixture of the two polarisation states. The SAR sensor may be designed to detect the H or the V
component of the backscattered radiation. Hence, there are four possible polarisation configurations for a SAR system:
"HH", "VV", "HV" and "VH" depending on the polarisation states of the transmitted and received microwave signals. For
example, the SAR onboard the ERS satellite transmits V polarised and receives only the V polarised microwave pulses,
so it is a "VV" polarised SAR. In comparison, the SAR onboard the RADARSAT satellite is a "HH" polarised SAR.
Incident Angles
The incident angle refers to the angle between the incident
radar beam and the direction perpendicular to the ground
surface. The interaction between microwaves and the
surface depends on the incident angle of the radar pulse on
the surface. ERS SAR has a constant incident angle of 23 o
at the scene centre. RADARSAT is the first spaceborne SAR
that is equipped with multiple beam modes enabling
microwave imaging at different incident angles and
resolutions.
The incident angle of 23 o for the ERS SAR is optimal for detecting ocean waves and other ocean
surface features. A larger incident angle may be more suitable for other applications. For example, a
large incident angle will increase the contrast between the forested and clearcut areas.

Acquisition of SAR images of an area using two different incident angles will also enable the
construction of a stereo image for the area.
SAR Images
Synthetic Aperture Radar(SAR)
images can be obtained from
satellites such as ERS, JERS
and RADARSAT. Since radar
interacts with the ground
features in ways different from
the optical radiation, special
care has to be taken when
interpreting radar images.

An example of a ERS SAR

image is shown below together
with a SPOT multispectral
natural colour composite image
of the same area for
comparison.
ERS SAR image (pixel size=12.5 m)
The urban area on the left
appears bright in the SAR image
while the vegetated areas on the
right have intermediate tone. The
clearings and water (sea and
river) appear dark in the image.

The SAR image was acquired in

September 1995 while the SPOT
image was acquired in February
1994.

SPOT Multispectral image in Natural Colour

(pixel size=20 m)
Speckle Noise

Unlike optical images, radar images are

formed by coherent interaction of the
transmitted microwave with the targets.
Hence, it suffers from the effects of
speckle noise which arises from coherent
summation of the signals scattered from
ground scatterers distributed randomly
within each pixel. A radar image appears
more noisy than an optical image. The
speckle noise is sometimes suppressed by
applying a speckle removal filter on the
digital image before display and further
analysis.
Backscattered Radar Intensity
A single radar image is usually displayed as a grey scale image, such as the one shown above. The intensity of each
pixel represents the proportion of microwave backscattered from that area on the ground which depends on a variety of
factors: types, sizes, shapes and orientations of the scatterers in the target area; moisture content of the target area;
frequency and polarisation of the radar pulses; as well as the incident angles of the radar beam. The pixel intensity
values are often converted to a physical quantity called the backscattering coefficient or normalised radar cross-section
measured in decibel (dB) units with values ranging from +5 dB for very bright objects to -40 dB for very dark surfaces.

Interpreting SAR Images

Interpreting a radar image is not a straightforward task. It very often requires some familiarity with the ground conditions
of the areas imaged. As a useful rule of thumb, the higher the backscattered intensity, the rougher is the surface being
imaged.

Flat surfaces such as paved roads, runways or calm water normally appear as dark areas in a radar image since most of
the incident radar pulses are specularly reflected away.
Calm sea surfaces appear dark in SAR images. However, rough sea surfaces may appear bright especially
when the incidence angle is small. The presence of oil films smoothen out the sea surface. Under certain
conditions when the sea surface is sufficiently rough, oil films can be detected as dark patches against a bright
background.
The brightness of areas
covered by bare soil may
vary from very dark to
very bright depending on
its roughness and
moisture content.
Typically, rough soil
appears bright in the
image. For similar soil
roughness, the surface
with a higher moisture
content will appear
brighter.
Multitemporal SAR images

If more than one radar images of the same area acquired at different time are available, they can
be combined to give a multitemporal colour composite image of the area. For example, if three
images are available, then one image can be assigned to the Red, the second to the Green and
the third to the Blue colour channels for display. This technique is especially useful in detecting
landcover changes over the period of image acquisition. The areas where no change in landcover
occurs will appear in grey while areas with landcover changes will appear as colourful patches in
the image.
This image is an example of a
multitemporal colour composite SAR
image. The area shown is part of the rice
growing areas in the Mekong River delta,
Vietnam, near the towns of Soc Trang
and Phung Hiep. Three SAR images
acquired by the ERS satellite during 5
May, 9 June and 14 July in 1996 are
assigned to the red, green and blue
channels respectively for display. The
colourful areas are the rice growing
areas, where the landcovers change
rapidly during the rice season. The
greyish linear features are the more
permanent trees lining the canals. The
grey patch near the bottom of the image
is wetland forest. The two towns appear
as bright white spots in this image. An
area of depression flooded with water
during this season is visible as a dark
region.
Radar Principle
The electronic principle on which radar operates is very similar to the principle of sound-wave reflection.
If you shout in the direction of a sound-reflecting object (like a rocky canyon or cave), you will hear an
echo. If you know the speed of sound in air, you can then estimate the distance and general direction of
the object. The time required for an echo to return can be roughly converted to distance if the speed of
sound is known.

Radar uses electromagnetic energy pulses in much the same way. The radio-frequency (rf) energy is
transmitted to and reflected from the reflecting object. A small portion of the reflected energy returns to
the radar set. This returned energy is called an ECHO, just as it is in sound terminology. Radar sets use
the echo to determine the direction and distance of the reflecting object.

The term RADAR is an acronym made up of the words:

RAdio Detection And Ranging

It refers to electronic equipment that detects the
presence of objects by using reflected
electromagnetic energy. Under some conditions,
radar system can measure the direction, height,
distance, course, and speed of these objects.
The frequency of electromagnetic energy used
for radar is unaffected by darkness and also
penetrates fog and clouds. This permits radar
systems to determine the position of airplanes,
ships, or other obstacles that are invisible to the
naked eye because of distance, darkness, or
weather.

Modern radar can extract widely more

information from a target's echo signal than its
range. But the calculating of the range by
measuring the delay time is one of its most
important functions.
Radar Equation
A practical limit for all radars is
the question of whether or not
it is technically possible to
measure the faint echo that
returns from the target. More
importantly, will the return
echo be detectable within the
measurement noise. The so-
called “radar equation” does
exactly this by determining
what proportion of the
transmitted energy is returned
from a target.
Side-Looking Airborne Radar
The platform (aircraft or satellite) of a side-
looking airborne radar(SLAR) travels forward
in the flight direction with the nadir directly
beneath the platform. The microwave beam is
transmitted obliquely at right angles to the
direction of flight illuminating a swath. Range
refers to the across-track dimension
perpendicular to the flight direction, while
azimuth refers to the along-track dimension
parallel to the flight direction.
Swath width refers to the strip of the Earth’s
surface from which data are collected by a side-
looking airborne radar. It is the width of the
imaged scene in the range dimension.
Spatial Resolution of SLAR Systems
The detail or resolution of a radar system
is dependent on two parameters:

● pulse length, and

● antenna beam width.

The pulse length dictates the spatial

resolution in the direction of energy
propagation (this is known as the "range
direction"), while the antenna beam
width determines the resolution cell in
the flight, or "azimuth" direction.

Using a long pulse length, increases the

possibility that the return signals from
two adjacent features will be received
simultaneously. If this is so, the two
objects will be viewed as one feature.

Pulse length is the length of time that antenna emits energy.

As seen in this diagram, if the
distance between the two
houses labeled A and B were
greater than {Pulse Length ÷
2} then they would be
discerned as two separate
features. Since, in this figure
the slant range distance is
less than {Pulse Length ÷ 2},
the reflected signals are
"blurred."

Slant range resolution does

not vary with increasing
distance from the aircraft, but
ground range does.
Ground Range Resolution
Ground range resolution (Rr) is the horizontal expression of the slant range
resolution (SR) and is expressed mathematically as:

Rr = cT ÷ 2cos d , where:

● c = the speed of light (300,000,000 m/s)

● T = pulse duration
● d= depression angle (complement of the "look angle")

On examining the figures and the equation, it is clear that as the

pulse duration decreases, the ground resolution (horizontal distance)
also decreases (meaning that the image can show greater spatial
detail).
There is an inverse relationship between the depression angle and
ground range resolution: as d increases from 0° to 90°, cos d
decreases from 1 to 0. Therefore, as the depression angle increases
the ground resolution (horizontal distance) also increases, resulting
in a decrease in spatial detail.
Azimuth Resolution
The azimuth resolution is the ground distance in the azimuth direction (i.e., the direction of the aircraft). The
azimuth resolution, Ra, is at a 90° angle to the ground range, GR. Azimuth resolution may be expressed as:

Ra = GR * Beta, where:

● GR is the ground range, and

● Beta is the beam width

The beam width of an instrument is in turn dependent on the wavelength transmitted and the antenna length. The
relationship is shown by:

Beta=Wavelength ÷ Antenna Length

Since the antenna beam "fans out" with increasing distance from the transmitter, spatial detail decreases with
increasing ground range. It is also advantageous to use the shortest possible wavelength, and the longest
possible antenna (AL).

For any given wavelength, the antenna beam width may be controlled by either of the following methods:

● controlling the physical length of the antenna (often referred to as "brute force" or "real aperture radars"), or,
● synthesizing the effective length of an antenna (called "synthetic aperture radars").
LiDAR
Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging), like radar, is an active remote sensing technique. This
technology involves transmitting pulses of laser light toward the ground and measuring the time of
pulse return. The return time for each pulse back to the sensor is processed to calculate the
distances between the sensor and the various surfaces present on (or above) the ground.

These light pulses—combined with other data recorded by the airborne system — generate precise,
three-dimensional information about the shape of the Earth and its surface characteristics.

A lidar instrument principally consists of a laser, a scanner, and a specialized GPS receiver. Airplanes
and helicopters are the most commonly used platforms for acquiring lidar data over broad areas. Two
types of lidar are topographic and bathymetric. Topographic lidar typically uses a near-infrared laser
to map the land, while bathymetric lidar uses water-penetrating green light to also measure seafloor
and riverbed elevations.
One of the more successful early applications of lidar
was the determination of accurate water depths. In this
situation the first reflected return records the water
surface, closely followed by a weaker return from the
bottom of the water body. The depth of the water can
then be calculated from the differential travel time of the
pulse return.

Modern lidar acquisition begins with an aircraft

equipped with high-precision GPS (for X, Y, Z sensor
location), an IMU (for measuring the angular orientation
of the sensor with respect to the ground), a rapidly
pulsing (10,000 to over 100,000 pulses/sec) laser, a
highly accurate clock, substantial onboard computer
support, reliable electronics, and robust data storage.

Principle of lidar bathymetry

Flights are conducted using a digital flight plan
without ground visibility, often at night.
Individual flight lines are planned with sufficient
overlap (30 to 50%) to assure that data gaps
do not occur in steep terrain.

Areas with dense vegetation cover or steep

terrain usually require a narrow field of view, so
that most of the lidar pulses are pointing nearly
straight down. These areas also typically
require a higher density of laser pulses per
square meter. This density is derived from the
altitude and speed of the aircraft, the scanning
angle, and the scan rate.
illustrates a theoretical pulse emitted
from a lidar system and traveling
along a line of sight through a forest
canopy and recording multiple
returns as various surfaces are “hit.”
In this case, the first return from a
transmitted pulse represents the top
of the forest canopy at a given
location. The last return may
represent the ground surface, if there
are sufficient gaps in the canopy for
portions of the transmitted pulse to
reach the ground and return, or a
point above the ground surface if the
canopy is too dense. In urban areas,
unobstructed surfaces such as
building roofs will produce a single
return, while areas with trees present
will produce multiple returns from the
tree canopy and ground surface.
Lidar data collected using NOAA
survey aircraft reveals a top-
down and side view of
Loggerhead Key Lighthouse, Dry
Tortugas, Florida. NOAA
scientists use lidar-generated
products to examine both natural
and manmade environments.
Lidar data supports activities
such as inundation and storm
surge modeling, hydrodynamic
modeling, shoreline mapping,
emergency response,
hydrographic surveying, and
coastal vulnerability analysis.
Lidar systems allow scientists and mapping

professionals to examine both natural and

manmade environments with accuracy, precision,

and flexibility. NOAA scientists are using lidar to

produce more accurate shoreline maps, make

digital elevation models for use in geographic

information systems, to assist in emergency

response operations, and in many other

applications. Lidar data sets for many coastal

areas can be downloaded from the Office for

Coastal Management Digital Coast web portal.

A lidar map of Lynnhaven Inlet, Virginia

Types of LiDAR

Functionally, LiDAR systems are either airborne or terrestrial. Here’s a brief look at each.

Airborne LiDAR

Airborne LiDAR is placed on a drone or helicopter and is helpful for applications that require a bird’s eye view of a vast area.

Here, two types of standard LiDAR. The first, topographic, uses a near-infrared laser to map land areas. The second,

bathymetric, uses a green water-penetrating light to map underwater terrain.

Terrestrial LiDAR

Terrestrial LiDAR works on the ground and is either mobile or static. Mobile LiDAR systems mount on moving platforms such

as autonomous vehicle, AI applications to identify objects in the driving environment. Unlike mobile, static LiDAR systems are

installed on stationary structures such as tripods—this type of LiDAR is prevalent in archeology, surveying, mining, and

engineering.

LiDAR data is accurate, fast, and beneficial for any location where the structure and shape of objects must be determined.
Applications
● Flood model: To prevent flooding along the river banks, Lidar is used in creating high-resolution and
accurate data about the surface model of a river or dam. This information is used for 3D simulation
to help plan the structure or the construction of the river bank.
● Agriculture: It helps create an elevation 3D map of the farmland. Farmers use the Lidar system to
find farmland areas that need more fertilizers. It helps farmers save on costly fertilizers and
increase agricultural production.
● Biodiversity of birds: Lidar remote sensing technology has evolved over the years and it helps
document detailed information about the forest. Forest has been the home of different wildlife
species including different types of birds, insects, and other animals. Scientist uses Lidar to analyze
forest data and determine whether it is a suitable place for the bird species and other animals.
Information about the tree structure, shrubs, and plant cells also determines which animal species
can survive in a certain forest.
● Forest planning and fire management: Lidar remote sensing technology is used to measure the
vertical structure of the forest canopy, the canopy base height, and bulk density. It is also used in
forest fire management by monitoring the fire areas which are commonly known as fuel mappings.
Applications

● Shoreline mapping: Lidar system is increasingly used for shoreline mapping, defining shoreline
position as well as quantifying the rate of shoreline change.
● Tourism and parks management: Lidar remote sensing is effective in planning the parks and
tourism areas. 3D data models generated helps in determining the best tourism playground area
and the walking trails.
● Mining: Remote sensing data is used in the mining sector. Photos of the ore extraction space are
taken to determine the ore volume of the mining area.
● Transport planning: Remote sensing data is used in road construction. Engineers use Lidar data to
determine the width, elevation, and length of the existing road and use the information in road
expansion. The data helps calculate height clearance, the right of the way, and surface conditions.
Summary

● Active Remote Sensing, its types : Active & Passive, Imaging & Non-Imaging
● Altimeter, SAR, SLAR
● SAR Imaging
● Radar Principles
● LiDAR & Applications
Thank You