DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION,,

AGRIBUSINESS & ECONOMICS

AASC 3811: RANGE & PASTURE MANAGEMENT

PASTURE SEED PRODUCTION - PRINCIPLES & PROCESSES

LECTURER: J. MUPANGWA

APRIL 3

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1. Introduction

The objective of a seed programme is to make available quality seed or vegetative

material that is suited to farmers’ needs for livestock or crop production. Farmers’ needs
are variable depending on the environment, type and class of grazing animal, cropping
environment and the crop or animal product required. The factors in field multiplication
namely seed production systems, site selection, the plant and its growth forms, crop
establishment, crop management and harvesting, processing and storage.

2. Seed production systems

In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), no single system of seed production is suited to the varying
social or environmental situations. Current seed production systems can be formal, well
developed commercial activities involving both the public and private sector. In these
systems, the focus is on commercial large-scale seed production and marketing. Much of
the agroforestry seed production is in the informal or traditional seed sector where
farmers do their own selection and seed production to meet their own needs and may also
sell or exchange excess seeds within the local community. Seed production systems may
be categorised as opportunist or specialised with varying degrees of mechanisation
(Humphreys, 1978). Within these two categories are four major systems of seed
production. These are:
□ □ opportunist -- labour intensive or mechanised
□ □ specialist -- labour intensive or mechanised

2.1 Opportunist systems

2.1.1 Labour intensive

This method often involves hand harvesting seed from existing pastures, tree crops at
roadsides, in plantations or from other areas and is often part of the informal seed
production sector. The method operates well in good seasons with plenty of rain that may
lead to excellent flowering and seed formation. The farmer may gather the seed or hire
labour to do the collection. In this system, seed may be hand stripped into containers or
the pods may be cut with a reaping hook or sickle. The seed heads or pods are then dried

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and threshed. Often, farmers may also sweep or rake seeds from the ground, a method
that leads to a high inert matter content (non-seed material), especially if seeds are in
short supply and have a high market value. Although it is possible through the
opportunist system to produce seed of high quality at low cost, it may have a low
germination percentage due to a range of seed maturity caused by differences in maturity
at harvest. Quality depends on the skill of the grower and timeliness of operations.

2.1.2 Mechanised
This system may or may not involve sophisticated or expensive equipment and has been used as
an alternative source of income by large-scale seed producers. Since there is usually plenty of
seed and no prior costs of production, the criterion for successful harvesting will be the yield of
seed harvested per day rather than per hectare especially if the method used is contract harvesting,
or weather conditions are unfavourable.

2.2 Specialist systems

2.2.1 Labour intensive
In this system, the crop is planted for seed production by the farmer. The system works
satisfactorily only when farmers are offered adequate technical guidance by extension
agents to grow the crop and are assured of reasonable prices for their produce. Generally,
one to three hectares of farmland are used by farmers in this system. The system is used
for high yields of high quality seed.

2.2.2 Mechanised
Farmers practising this system must be highly skilled and knowledgeable about seed
crops and their management from establishment through to harvest. Such farmers may
also process and package their seed for distribution although many farmers in this
category work on a contract basis to a seed organisation or company that has specialised
equipment and resources. Seed harvesting, processing and sales require a highly
organised drying, cleaning and packaging system and the ability to promote and market
seeds. This system is not advisable for use by smallholder farmers because of the
resources required. Moreover, the production unit must be larger than usually applied to

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smallholder farming and a greater level of efficiency is required to enjoy a minimum
economic return.

3. Site selection
An important requirement in seed production is for the grower to plant in areas or sites
which are most likely to support high seed yields. Experience has shown that shoot
density, the number of seeds formed per flower and the percentage harvest recovery of
the seed are three of the most important factors contributing to seed yield. They are also
the most influenced by weather and farming practices. It is not surprising therefore that
most seed production programme failures are caused by poor choice of site and grower
selection than any other factor.

The best seed crops are produced in environments with sufficient radiation, temperature
and rainfall for vegetative growth, favourable photoperiods and higher temperature for
floral induction and calm, dry weather during maturation and harvest. Material for
multiplication must be chosen to match the prevailing conditions for climate, day length
and soils.
3.1 Factors influencing site selection
3.1.1 Climate
Although soils are important, the location of the site for seed crops depends primarily on
the climate. The weather, unlike nutrient and soil supply, may only be marginally
modified by the grower. Seed production is generally encouraged by sunny weather.
Areas with abundant radiation especially in the later stages of crop development are
expected to have high seed production by encouraging rapid growth rates, flower opening
and increased bee activity. Temperature affects vegetative growth, floral induction,
inflorescence growth and differentiation, flower opening, pollen germination and
subsequent seed set and maturation. The effect may vary within and between species. It is
difficult to give a generalised temperature range for seed growth and flowering. However,
optimum temperature and temperature response for growth is different for each phase and
varies between and within species.

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3.1.2 Day length
Day length is the main environmental factor controlling flowering in many plants. It
provides the measure of seasonal change and promotes flowering in many species. Day
length sensitivity enables flowering to be initiated before adverse conditions occur and
facilitates outcrossing by synchronizing flowering. There are three basic categories of day
length response.
❖ Short-day: flowering stimulated by day length shorter than the critical length.
❖ Long-day: flowering stimulated by day length longer than the critical length.
❖ Day-neutral: flowers in days of any length (flowering unaffected by day
length).
3.1.3 Physiological control of flowering
Some species must complete a long vegetative juvenile phase before any flowering
occurs, even when environmental conditions are suitable. The mechanism of juvenility is
not clearly understood. A long juvenile phase may make the time of sowing critical in
some species (Pearson and Ison, 1987) and may constitute a hazard in short growing
seasons. If present, the phase must pass before the plant can respond to any stimulus for
flowering.

3.1.4 Soil
The soil requirements of forage crops vary significantly. Some crops prefer deep soils
with a good moisture-holding capacity while others, such as the non-competitive
legumes, can grow well on less fertile sandy soils. In general, a soil with good moisture¬
holding capacity is an advantage, especially with grasses, against unreliable rainfall and
inefficient irrigation. The problems of acidity and alkalinity also require attention while
selecting a site. Several important forage species are adapted to acid soils and grow
poorly on alkaline or neutral soils. Fertile soils of suitable pH are preferred. Care should
be taken with densely textured soils which present a high resistance to seedling
elongation and decrease speed of emergence. If on-site operations are to be mechanical,
the land should be reasonably level and well drained.

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4. Post-harvest seed conditioning
After harvest, seeds must be threshed, cleaned and dried ready for storage. Newly
harvested seeds contain husks, straw, soil particles and other unwanted seeds. These must
be removed through the threshing and cleaning process to obtain good quality seeds of
the required cultivar. Seeds are often harvested at higher moisture contents than those
recommended for storage. Moist seeds are more susceptible to damage during cleaning
because they are relatively soft. Drying reduces seed moisture to a safe level for both
cleaning and later storage. This module examines, in detail, each of these seed operations.

5. Threshing and winnowing

Threshing involves separating the seeds from panicles and straw, and winnowing the
chaff from the seeds. The process of separating the seed from the chaff or pod often
requires considerable energy but sorting the seed from the straw is a relatively easy
process. This process is followed by winnowing. Winnowing uses wind to separate heavy
and light material. It involves dropping the material from shoulder height or higher on to
a clean area on the ground with wind blowing from behind. Any material that is lighter
than the seed is removed and the remaining fallen seed is hand sorted to remove
imperfect seed and non-seed material. Whether by hand or machine, winnowing is easy
to handle.
5.1 Threshing methods
Seed materials can be threshed by hand or machine. The basic principles of each of these
methods are explained below.

5.1.1 Manual threshing

Small-scale farmers employing this method often use a simple stick or flail to separate
the seed from the inflorescence and straw by beating the crop repeatedly on the floor. The
crop or plant parts bearing the seed may also be beaten against stones to release the seeds.
Hand collection by rubbing or shaking ripe seeds into a container can provide seed of
excellent quality especially when labour is effectively supervised.

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5.1.2 Animal-powered threshing
Animals are used to trample on plant parts bearing the seed. Weights are added behind
the animals to increase threshing productivity. This method is considered relatively cheap
but is slow.

5.1.3 Engine-powered threshing

This method is considered the most expensive and usually used only in large-scale
operations. In all the techniques care must be taken to minimise physical damage which
can affect germination or allow disease infestation. In legumes, abrasion can reduce the
degree of hardseededness.

6. Seed drying
Newly harvested seed of all tropical grasses and some legumes is quite moist. Freshly
harvested seeds can have a moisture content of 40--70%. The seeds must therefore be
dried to a safe moisture content (8—12%) to prevent loss of germination, heating and
infestation during storage. Even seeds harvested from stooks or by windrowing require
further drying. Leaving the seed to dry on the mother plant is best since the seeds
continue to mature and are shed naturally. However, if the crop remains in the field for
too long, yields may be lowered through lodging and seed shatter, especially in wet
windy areas. Increases in diseases and pests may also lower quality and remain a problem
during storage. Successful seed drying requires an appreciation of the differences
between the physical (size, shape and covering) and chemical composition of the seed.
During drying seed moisture evaporates into the surrounding air. Evaporation, using heat
from the seed, occurs until the amount of water in the seed is equivalent to or in
equilibrium with the amount in the air (relative humidity). This is termed the equilibrium
moisture content of seeds and varies from crop to crop. The rate at which a seed dries is a
function of how fast the moisture evaporates from its surface. This in turn depends on the
temperature and relative humidity (rh) of the drying air, and the rate at which moisture
moves from inside the seed to the seed surface (i.e. permeability of the seed to moisture).
There is a relationship between safe drying temperature and initial seed moisture content.
The general recommendation for field crops is to dry the seed at temperatures of no more

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than 32, 37 and 43°C for moisture contents of more than 18%, 10 to 18%, and less than
10% moisture, respectively. Seed viability is decreased by drying at temperatures above
40°C. If drying is too rapid there is a tendency for the seed coat to split or harden which
may prevent the interior of the seed from drying.

6.1 Seed-drying methods

Generally, there are three main methods of drying seed in sub-Saharan Africa. These are
sun drying, natural forced air drying and artificial drying.

6.1.1 Sun or shade drying

The seed is spread on a floor, racks, mats, tarpaulin etc in the sun or shade to dry. It is
important to dry seeds on a waterproof base to avoid transfer of moisture from the ground
up into the seeds. At no time should grass seed be exposed to direct sunlight for drying.
Temperatures under the sun often exceed 35-40 oC and this can kill the seed. Legumes can
withstand some exposure due to their harder seed coats. Usually, the rate of drying is
proportional to the exposed surface area of the layer which often means that the thin beds
that cover a large area dry soonest. This method relies solely on ambient conditions
which can dry or increase the seed moisture content depending on wind, temperature and
relative humidity. Drying is faster in well ventilated areas.
Advantages
❖ Small quantities of seed can usually be quickly and efficiently dried in the
shade.
❖ It is inexpensive and requires minimal supervision or attention to the seeds
(turning every 1—2 hours).

Disadvantages
❖ weather dependent
❖ incomplete drying in humid environments
❖ some small seeds are unable to withstand the high temperatures in direct
sunlight
❖ unless screened from wind, seed can be blown away and lost or mixed with
others.

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6.1.2 Natural forced air drying
For this method, natural air dryers are constructed to take advantage of ventilation. Seeds
are spread in thin layers on beds which can be horizontally or vertically oriented.
Supporting beds are made of perforated materials (sacking, wood or metal sieves) which
permit air movement through the drying seeds. The drier is oriented with the prevailing
wind direction and works on the principle of hot air rising, which removes the moisture.
Horizontal beds can be stacked on top of one another with enough space between to
allow air flow. It can be accelerated by using solar driers which capture the sun’s heat on
absorptive or reflective surfaces and allow the air to pass through the seed. This method
is also known as ventilation drying.
Advantages
❖ Uses natural but ambient air.
❖ Local materials can be used for the construction of ventilated dryers.
❖ Ability to move the drying seeds around, either vertically or horizontally, to
ensure rapid drying.
Disadvantages
❖ weather dependent
❖ not suited for use in the humid tropics.

6.1.3 Artificial drying

Larger quantities of seed can be dried using the artificial method. This method allows
early harvesting of seed crops so that shattering and the possibility of weather damage
are
minimised. Artificial drying equipment relies on increasing the air flow around the
seed,
with or without dehumidification of the air by heating or using chemical desiccants.
An artificial drying facility should consist of the following:
1. A fan of sufficient size to deliver a minimum drying air flow.
2. Efficient heating capacity to raise the air temperature to 35--40°C.
3. Adequate control to maintain the air temperature at 35--40°C or less.
4. Adequate drying capacity compatible with the harvesting rate at which seeds will
be
received by the
plant.

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Advantages
❖ larger quantities of seed can be dried
❖ allows early harvesting of seed crop
❖ provides better control of seed quality in all environments
❖ independent of weather conditions.
Disadvantages
❖ equipment dependent
❖ expensive equipment out of the reach of smallholders
❖ difficult equipment to clean with a risk of seed contamination between seed
lots.

7. Seed cleaning
Seed cleaning is the removal of inert matter, other crop seed (including weeds) and
damaged seed from harvested, threshed and dried material to increase marketable value.
Cleaning ensures good seed quality. If done with the right equipment and appropriate
methods, it can increase purity and germination by removal of unsuitable materials. It can
also decrease the number of diseased seeds (if misshapen) and improve the visual,
commercial and planting quality of the seed lot. Seed cleaning can be done manually by
sorting out unwanted material from small seed lots. Mechanical cleaning is more usual
due to the labour costs of manual cleaning. However, machines are not as perfect as
traditional manual systems as their capacity is far greater and cannot facilitate a final
hand selection of all individual grains. Seeds have three major characteristics by which
they can be separated from non-seed material or other seeds. They are:
❖ Geometric ---- size (width and thickness), length and shape.
❖ Mechanical ---- resilience, shape, size, surface texture and density.
❖ Physical — surface texture, specific gravity and affinities.

7.1.1 Geometric separation: Seeds are separated by passing them over reciprocating
sieves or revolving cylinders with round holes or slots (oblong). Round holes separate
particles according to their width while oblong holes separate particles according to
their
thickness (Figure 2.3). Where length is a definite separator, indented cylinders which
can

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separate long, short or broken seeds are used. When shapes differ, the rolling ability of a
seed is used to separate round seeds from flat seed in special cleaning machines.

7.1.2 Mechanical separation: In this method, the density of the seed is used to separate
seeds. Seeds fall through an upward current of air which can be adjusted to remove
material lighter than the seed. Legumes are more resilient than grasses (i.e. they bounce)
and so can be separated even between species.

7.1.3 Physical separation: Physical separation relies on the affinity of some seeds for
an
electro-magnetic current which can be used to draw off seeds from the bulk. Colour
separators are used to separate discoloured seeds. Colours can be identified by electronic
eyes (or photo electric cells) and are subsequently separated.

7.2 Practical seed cleaning

Cleaning consists of three main stages ---- pre-cleaning, basic cleaning and
separation/grading of seed. Pre-cleaning removes materials (other than seed) that could
impede seed flow and accurate cleaning. In the basic cleaning stage, materials other than
the required seed are removed. Seed is then further refined. Separation/grading enhances
the quality of the seed by separation and removal of undesirable materials. There are
three main types of specialised cleaning machines used for seed cleaning. These are air-
screen cleaners, indented cylinders and scarifiers.

7.2.1 Air-screen cleaner

This is the most important machine in the cleaning process, often referred to as the
"heart" of every cleaning plant. It adopts the traditional winnowing and sieving/sorting
principles but allows for greater throughput. A simple winnower can be made by using
fans, to create a stream of air which will separate seed and waste material by weight.
Tobacco seed cleaners can work equally well.

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8. Seed packaging
At the end of processing, the seed is packed and sealed into containers of uniform size.
The transfer of the cleaned seed from the processing plant to the field where it is to be
sown is neither a simple nor a speedy operation. The seed may have to be transported
long distances by a variety of means — rail, lorry, animal-drawn carts, on animals’
backs or even by hand — and subjected to jolting, rough handling and rain. The journey
may be interrupted by periods of storage in country merchants’ or village traders’
premises. On arrival at the farm the seed is kept for a time in a barn, in the farmer’s home
or even out of doors. Throughout all this, the package must be able to protect the seed
from physical, climatological and biological damage.
The package therefore serves as a:
❖ convenient unit of handling, purchase, transport and storage
❖ protection against contamination, mechanical damage and loss
❖ suitable environment for storage
❖ sales promoter (information and advertisement).

9. Seed storage
Seed is stored from harvest to the next planting, which may be in the next season or after
several seasons. A number of factors influence the viability and maintenance of seed
quality during storage. The most important are seed moisture and temperature. If seed is
to be stored for any length of time, it must be at safe moisture content. High moisture
contents allow insect and micro-organism activity, which cause heating. Maintenance of
seed viability depends on the conditions experienced before and during storage. Damage
during harvesting, inadequate or improper drying, rough handling and poor physical
storage should be avoided. Relative humidity (RH) and temperature (T) of the storage
environment affect maintenance of seed quality. Relative humidity (RH) has the most
influence on seed longevity because it affects seed moisture content. Moist seeds are also
more susceptible to attack by insect pests and diseases. It is therefore most important to
control seed moisture content during storage. The moisture content of seed is in
equilibrium with the ambient relative humidity during storage. To maintain low seed
moisture content, the storage facilities must be located in an area/locality where the

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relative humidity is low or have artificially controlled relative humidity. The maximum
relative humidity for successful storage will depend on the kind of seed, length of storage
period and ambient temperature.

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