Mechanical Sensors

Mechanical sensors are devices that detect changes in a physical property—such as position, force,
pressure, or displacement

These sensors are widely used in engineering, manufacturing and everyday devices to monitor and control
processes.

A mechanical sensor detects physical changes, such as displacement, force, or

pressure, and typically provides a mechanical output, such as movement,
displacement, or mechanical deformation. The sensor directly measures
physical changes without converting them into an electrical signal.
Electromechanical sensors

Electromechanical sensors are devices that combine both electrical and mechanical
components to detect physical changes, such as force, pressure, temperature, or
position.
These sensors use mechanical movement, deformation, or displacement to produce
an electrical output that can be measured and analyzed.

An electromechanical sensor detects mechanical changes (like force,

displacement, or pressure) and converts them into an electrical signal
(such as voltage, current, or resistance). These sensors use both electrical
and mechanical components to provide an electrical output.
Principles of Sensing and Transduction

1. Principle of Sensing:
• The principle of sensing refers to the physical mechanism by which
the sensor detects a change in the physical environment.
• It often involves deformation, displacement, or a change in physical
properties due to the measured quantity.
• For mechanical sensors, this might involve strain, compression, or
motion, while electromechanical sensors often exploit changes in
resistance, capacitance, inductance, or piezoelectric effects.
Principle of Transduction

• Describes the concept or methodology behind energy or signal conversion.

• Transduction involves converting the sensed mechanical input into a usable output, such as
an electrical signal.
In electromechanical sensors, transduction mechanisms include:
• Piezoelectric effect: Conversion of mechanical stress into electrical charge.
• Resistive transduction: Change in resistance due to strain (strain gauges).
• Capacitive transduction: Variation in capacitance due to displacement or proximity changes.
• Inductive transduction: Change in inductance or mutual inductance due to motion.

Note:
A Transducer is the practical device that applies transduction methodology
Classification of electromechanical sensor

a. Resistive Sensors

b. Capacitive Sensors

c. Inductive Sensors

d. Piezoelectric Sensors
Resistive sensors
• Resistive sensors are devices that measure changes in resistance caused
by physical phenomena such as strain, displacement, temperature, or
force
1. Strain Gauges
2. Potentiometers
Strain Guage construction
• Strain is the amount of deformation of a body
due to an applied force
• Strain can be positive (tensile) or negative
(compressive).
• The metallic strain gauge consists of a very fine
wire or, more commonly, metallic foil arranged in
a grid pattern.
• The grid pattern maximizes the amount of
metallic wire or foil subject to strain in the
parallel direction.
• The grid is bonded to a thin backing, called the
carrier, which is attached directly to the test
specimen.
Strain • Therefore, the strain experienced by the test
specimen is transferred directly to the strain
gauge, which responds with a linear change in
electrical resistance.
Strain gauge working
A strain gauge is a resistor used to measure strain on an
object.
When an external force is applied on an object, due to
which there is a deformation occurs in the shape and size
of the object.
This deformation in the shape is both compressive or
tensile is called strain, and it is measured by the strain
gauge.
When an object deforms within the limit of elasticity,
either it becomes narrower and longer or it become
shorter and broadens.
As a result of it, there is a change in resistance end-to-
end.
Steps in the Operation of a Strain Gauge:

1.Application of Load:
A mechanical load is applied to the object, such as a beam or surface.
2.Deformation of Strain Gauge:
As the object deforms, the strain gauge, which is bonded to it, also deforms. The
deformation may cause the strain gauge to elongate or compress.
3.Change in Electrical Resistance:
The deformation of the strain gauge results in a change in its resistance due to the
change in the length and cross-sectional area of the conductive material.
4.Signal Conversion:
The change in resistance is measured by the Wheatstone bridge and converted into an
electrical signal (voltage or current) that is proportional to the amount of strain.
Sliding Contact Devices
• Every sliding contact type of resistance transducer consists
of a long conductor whose length can be varied.

• One end of the conductor will be fixed while other end of the
conductor is connected to a slider or a brush which moves
along the full length of the conductor.
L - conductor length,
A - area of the conductor
• The slider is connected to the object whose displacement
R - resistance of conductor.
has to be measured. ρ - resistivity
• When a force is applied to the object to move them from its
initial position, the slider also travels all along the length of
the conductor.

• Due to this the length of conductor changes, which reflects

on change in resistance of the conductor.

• Potentiometer is a type of transducer which works on the

principle of sliding contact type. Potentiometers are used to
measure linear and angular displacement.
Potentiometer
• A potentiometer is also called as pot.
• It is variable resistor that has 3 terminals.
• Two fixed terminals and one variable terminal.
• In this device the current flow is controlled by varying
the resistance manually.

Working
• The input supply voltage is applied to the entire length
of the resistor.
• The output voltage is measured as voltage drop between
fixed and movable contact as seen in the figure below.
• The slider is adjusted manually over the resistive strip to
change the resistance value from zero to a higher value.
• When the resistance changes, the current flowing
through circuit changes.
Types of Potentiometer

1.Rotary Potentiometer
2.Linear Potentiometer
Rotary Potentiometer: Measures angular displacement
• Adjustable supply voltage can be obtained using rotary potentiometer. A familiar
example is volume controller of a radio transistor, in which the amplifier supply
is supported by the rotary knob of the pot. The other applications are it is used
when the end user needs smooth voltage control.

Linear Potentiometer:Measures linear displacement

• It works same as the rotary potentiometer but the only difference is slider
moves linearly on the resistor. The resistor ends are connected across the
supply voltage. The two ends of the output circuit are connected to the sliding
terminal and resistor terminal
Examples:

• Radios
• Musical instruments
•Robotic arm position feedback
• Steering wheel angle measurement in vehicles
 Inductive Sensor

• An inductive sensor is a type of proximity sensor that detects metallic objects without physical
contact. It operates based on electromagnetic induction and is widely used in industrial
automation, robotics, and security applications.
• Working Principle of Inductive Sensors
• Inductive sensors work by generating an alternating magnetic field using an inductor (coil).
The presence of a metallic object in this field induces eddy currents in the metal, which affects
the coil’s impedance. This change is detected by the sensor’s circuit, triggering an output
signal.
• Components of an Inductive Sensor
1.Oscillator – Generates an AC magnetic field.
2.Coil – Produces the electromagnetic field.
3.Detector Circuit – Senses changes in impedance.
4.Output Circuit – Converts the signal into a usable form.
 Mutual inductance change type
Mutual inductance change type sensors operate based on the
principle of mutual inductance, where the inductance between
two coils varies due to the movement of a target object,
typically a ferromagnetic or conductive material.

Suppose the wire is wound into a coil and another coil is

brought closer to it. Then, the changing magnetic field in
the first coil will induce an emf (electromotive force) in
the second. This phenomenon is known as mutual
induction.
The property that links the two coils by a common
magnetic field is known as mutual inductance.
Reluctance Change Type Inductive Sensor

• These sensors operate on the principle that the inductance of a coil

depends on the reluctance (opposition to the formation of a magnetic
field) of the magnetic circuit.
• When a ferromagnetic object changes the path of the magnetic flux,
the reluctance of the magnetic circuit varies, leading to a change in
inductance.
 Working Principle:
•The sensor consists of a coil wound around a
ferromagnetic core.
•When an external ferromagnetic object moves
closer to or away from the core, the reluctance
of the magnetic circuit changes.
•This change in reluctance alters the inductance
of the coil.
•The change in inductance is detected and
converted into an electrical signal.
Example:
Used in automotive applications to measure
Total flux linkage the rotational speed of gears
Transforms action type

If a metallic object such as a piece of wire is

placed within this magnetic field, this oscillating
magnetic field causes an electric current to
generate inside this second conductor.
This principle is known as ‘electromagnetic
induction’. This is the principle that can be
found in electrical transformers as well.
Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
• A Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is a type of
inductive transducer used to measure used to measure
displacement, pressure, and force.
• It operates based on the principle of mutual induction
• LVDT consists of one primary
coil and two secondary coils
wounded on a cylindrical core.
The core is made up of a
ferromagnetic material such
as iron core and is freely
movable inside the coil and
this movement measures the
physical quantity.
• The primary winding is
connected to an AC source.
The two secondary winding
S1 and S2 have an equal
number of turns and are set
up in series opposition
1.When the core is positioned at the centre (Case 1), voltages induced across winding S1 and
S2 are equal(but in reverse-phase). Then, the resultant voltage V 0=0. In this case, we say
there is no displacement.
2.If the core is displaced from the central position to more in S 1(Case 2), then more emf
generated in coil S1. That is V1>V2.

3.Similarly, if the core is displaced from the central position to more in S 2(Case 3), then more
emf generated in coil S2. That is V2>V1.
Applications of LVDT

✅ Industrial Automation – Measuring linear displacement in CNC

machines.
✅ Aerospace and Aviation – Monitoring aircraft control surfaces.
✅ Biomedical Applications – Used in prosthetic devices and
biomechanics research.
✅ Structural Health Monitoring – Measuring bridge deflections and
building vibrations.
✅ Robotics – Precise positioning in robotic arms.
✅ Automotive Industry – Suspension and throttle position sensing.
Proximity sensor

• A proximity sensor is a device that detects the presence or absence of

an object in a specific area without requiring any physical contact
• proximity sensor send out a signal – be it an electromagnetic field,
ultrasonic waves, or infrared light—and monitor for changes or
disturbances in that signal caused by the presence of an object.
• When such a disturbance is detected, the sensor triggers an output
signal, typically in the form of an electrical signal, indicating the
detection.
Capacitive proximity sensor working
1.The sensor generates an electrostatic field
between the sensor plate and the target object.
2.When the target object approaches the sensor, the
distance between the two plates changes.
3.This change in distance alters the capacitance of
the oscillator circuit.
4.The oscillator circuit begins to oscillate, and the
output state of the sensor changes when it reaches a
certain amplitude.
5.The sensor activates when the oscillations reach a
threshold level.
• Inductive proximity sensors: Create an electromagnetic field and detect metal
targets

• Capacitive proximity sensors: Can be used to detect plastic targets.

 Applications

Capacitive Proximity Sensor

• Object detection: Used in automation industries to detect plastic, wood, or glass
objects.
• Liquid level detection: Measures the presence of liquid in tanks without direct contact.
• Touch Sensors: Used in smartphones and modern touch interfaces.

Inductive Proximity Sensor

•Automated Production Line: Detecting metal parts on a conveyor belt for sorting or
quality control.
•Car Parking Sensors: Used in automatic vehicle detection at toll booths and parking
garages.
Capacitive sensors
Change in the Area of Plates
• The capacitance is directly proportional to the area
of the plates.
• The capacitance changes correspondingly with the
change in the position of the plates. It is used for
measuring the angular displacement.
• It is measured by the movable plates as shown
below.
• One of the plates of the transducer is fixed, and the
other is movable.
• The angular movement changes the capacitance of
the transducers.
• The capacitance between them is maximum when
these plates overlap each other.
• The maximum value of capacitance is expressed as
Change in distance between the plates

• The capacitance of the transducer is inversely

proportional to the distance between the
plates.
• The one plate of the transducer is fixed, and
the other is movable.
• The displacement which is to be measured
links to the movable plates.
Piezoelectric element

A piezoelectric element is a device that

converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy, or vice versa.

•Piezoelectric effect: When force is applied to a

piezoelectric element, the positive and negative
ions move, creating a voltage.

•Reverse piezoelectric effect: When voltage is

applied to a piezoelectric element, it deforms.

•Piezoelectric elements have a unique

characteristic whereby the element elongates
or vibrates when an external voltage is applied
Ultrasonic Sensor

working
1.The sensor emits sound waves at a
frequency that humans can't hear.
2.The sound waves bounce off objects
and return to the sensor.
3.The sensor measures the time it
took for the sound waves to return.
4.The sensor calculates the distance
between the object and the sensor
using the speed of sound.