Abstract Algebra and

Number Theory
Abstract Algebra and Number
Theory
 Modern cryptography

 Plaintext and Ciphertext

 Most encryption is heavily on number theory

 Abstract Algebra

 No major contribution of calculus and Trigonometry

Concepts

 The Division Algorithm  Polynomial Arithmetic

 The Euclidean Algorithm  Prime Numbers

  Fermat's and Euler's Theorem

The Extended Euclidean
Algorithm  Testing for Primality
 Modular Arithmetic  The Chinese Remainder

 Groups , Rings , Fields and Theorem

Finite Fields  Discrete Logarithms

Prime Numbers

 Prime Numbers : Has exactly two devisors.

 If “N” is the prime , then the divisors are 1 and N.
 All numbers have prime factors.
Numbers 10 11 100 37 308 14688

Prime 21 x 51 11 x 111 22 x 52 11 x 371 22 x 71 x 25 x 33 x

Factorizatio 111 171
n

Prime 2 ,5 1 , 11 2,5 1 , 37 2,7, 2,3,

Numbers 11 17
 Prime Numbers

A Prime Number is number greater than

1 with only two factors – itself and one.
It cannot be divided further by any other
numbers without leaving a remainder.
Prime Numbers – Example

 2 is a prime number
 3 is a prime number
 5 is a prime number
 7 is a prime number
 9 is not a prime number
 9 is composite number
 33 is a composite number

33 11 3 1
1 33 3 33 11 33 33 33
33 33 33 33
0 0 0
0
Why prime numbers in
cryptography ?
 Many encryption algorithms are based on prime numbers

 Very fast to multiply two large prime numbers.

 Extremely computer-intensive to do the reverse.

 Factoring very large prime numbers is very hard.

Are they prime numbers ?

5393
27644437
4398042316799
1125899839733759
18014398241046527
Modular Arithmetic
 System of arithmetic for integers.
 Wrap around after reaching a certain value called modulus.
 Central mathematical concept in cryptography.

0
Congruence 12 10
0
10
In cryptography , congruence (≡) instead of equality (=) (-2)

Examples :
1 3
15 ≡ 3 ( mod 26 ) 12 15 10 33
12 30
33 ≡ 3 (mod 10) 3 3
10 ≡ -2 ( mod 12 )
 a ≡ b (mod m)

a = km + b
k
m a

Valid or invalid
38 ≡ 2 ( mod 12 )
38 ≡ 14 ( mod 12 )
5 ≡ 0 ( mod 5 )
10 ≡ 2 ( mod 6 )
13 ≡ 3 ( mod 13 )
2 ≡ -3 ( mod 5 )
-8 ≡ 7 ( mod 5 )
One more analogy

Circumference : 10 Length : 35

No of wraps Remaining Thread Congruence

(Quotient) (Remainder)
1 25 35 ≡ 25 mod 10
2 15 35 ≡ 15 mod 10
3 5 35 ≡ 5 mod 10
Properties of Modular Arithmetic

1. [ ( a mod n ) + ( b mod n ) ] = ( a + b ) mod n

2. [ ( a mod n ) – ( b mod n ) ] = ( a – b ) mod n
3. [ ( a mod n ) * ( b mod n ) ] = ( a * b ) mod n

Example :

[ ( 15 mod 8 ) + ( 11 mod 8 ) ]mod 8 = ( 15 + 11 ) mod 8

= 26 mod 8
=2
Properties of Modular Arithmetic

Property Expression

Commutative Laws (a + b ) mod n = ( b + a ) mod n

( a * b ) mod n = ( b * a ) mod n

Associative Laws [ ( a + b ) + c ] mod n = [ a + ( b + c ) ]

mod n
[ ( a * b ) * c ] mod n = [ a * ( b * c ) ]
mod n
Distributive Laws [ a * ( b + c ) ] mod n = [ ( a * b ) + ( a
* c ) ] mod n

Identities ( 0 + a ) mod n = a mod n

( 1 * a ) mod n = a mod n

Additive Inverse For each a∈Zn , there exists a “–a” such

that
a + (-a) ≡ 0 mod n
Modular Exponentiation

 It is a type of a exponentiation performed over a modulus.

 ab mod m or ab ( mod m ).

Solve 233 mod 30

Example :
233 mod 30 = - 73 mod 30 || 23 mod 30 can be 23 or -7.
= - 73 mod 30
233 mod 30
= - 72 *-7 mod 30
3100 mod 29 = 49 *-7 mod 30
= - 133 mod 30
= - 13 mod 30
= 17 mod 30
233 mod 30 = 17
Example :
Solve 887 mod 187

881 mod 187 = 88

882 mod 187 = 881 * 881 mod 187 = 88 * 88 = 7744 mod 187 = 77
884 mod 187 = 882 * 882 mod 187= 77 * 77 = 5929 mod 187 = 132
887 mod 187 = 884 * 882 * 881 mod 187 = ( 132 * 77 * 88 ) mod 187
= 894,432 mod 187

887 mod 187 = 11

Euclidean Algorithm

 Euclidean Algorithm or Euclid's Algorithm

 For computing the Greatest common Divisor ( GCD )
 Highset common factor (HCF)
 Starts with two numbers, 𝑎 and 𝑏, where 𝑎>𝑏>b.
 The last non-zero remainder is the GCD of the original two numbers.

12 33
Divisors 1,2,3,4,6,12 1,3,11,33
Common Divisors 1,3
Greatest Common 3
Divisors

GCD ( 12 , 33 ) = 3
 25 150
Divisors 1,5,25 1,2,3,5,6,10,15,25,30
50,75,150
Common Divisors
Greatest Common
Divisors

GCD (25,150) = 25

13 31
Divisors
Common Divisors
Greatest Common
Divisors

GCD (13,31) = 1
Find GCD 12,33
Euclid's Algorithm for finding GCD

GCD (12,33) = 3

Q A B R

33 12

Find the GCD (750,900)

GCD (252,105)
Euclid's Algorithm for finding GCD

Prerequisite : a > b

Euclid_GCD (a,b):

if b = 0 then

return a ;

else

return Euclid_GCD ( b , a mod b ) ;

Example 1 : find the GCD (50,12)

Solution :

Here a=50 , b=12

GCD (a , b ) =GCD (b , a mod b )

GCD ( 50 , 12 ) =GCD (12 , 50 ) mod 12 = GCD (12 , 2 )

GCD ( 12 , 2 ) = GCD (2 , 12 mod 2 ) = GCD (2 , 0 )
GCD ( 50 , 12 ) = 2

Find the GCD ( 83 , 19 )

Relative Prime Numbers

Two numbers are said to be relatively prime , if they have

no prime Factors in common , and their only common factor is 1.

 If GCD ( a , b ) = 1 then “a” and “b” are relatively prime numbers

 Co-prime

GCD (4 , 13 ) = 1
Are 4 and 13 relatively prime ? Yes , 4 and 13 are relatively prime numbers.

4 13
Divisors 1,2,4 1,13
Common Divisors 1
Greatest Common 1
Divisors
Are 15 and 21 relatively prime ?

15 21

Divisors

Common Divisors

Greatest Common
Divisors
Euler's Totient
Function
(Phi Function)
Euler's Totient Function

 Denoted as φ(n)
 φ(n) = Number of positive integers less than “n” that are relatively prime to n.

Example :

Find φ(5)

Numbers less than 5 are 1,2,3 and 4

GCD Relatively prime ?

GCD (1,5) = 1 ✔
GCD (2,5) = 1 ✔
GCD (3,5) = 1 ✔
GCD (4,5) = 1 ✔

φ(5) = 4
Find φ(11)
Solution

Here n = 11

Numbers less than 5 are 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 and 10

GCD Relatively prime ?
GCD (1,11) = 1 ✔
GCD (2,11) = 1 ✔
GCD (3,11) = 1 ✔
GCD (4,11) = 1 ✔
GCD (5,11) = 1 ✔
GCD (6,11) = 1 ✔

GCD Relatively prime ?

GCD (7,11) = 1 ✔
GCD (8,11) = 1 ✔
GCD (9,11) = 1 ✔
GCD (10,11) = 1 ✔
 Fermat's Little Theorem

If “p” is a prime number and “a” is a positive integer not divisible by “p” then
ap-1 ≡ 1 ( mod p )

Example 1 :

Does Fermat's theorem hold true for p = 5 and a = 2 ?

Solution : Given p = 5 a = 2

ap-1 ≡ 1 (mod p)
25-1 ≡ 1 (mod 5)
24 ≡ 1 (mod 5 )
16 ≡ 1 (mod 5)

Therefore , Fermat's theorem holds true for p = 5 and a = 2