Teaching and Learning

Unit I

Journal Writing

Muhammad Ziad
Lecturer INS-KMU Peshawar

1
 Outlines of the session:

At the end of this unit; the learners would be able to:

• Define Journal writing

• Discuss Benefits of Journal writing

• Enlist types of Journal writing

• Discuss tips for Effective Journal Writing

• Explain the process of journal writing

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 Journal writing
• Journal writing is a powerful and versatile activity that can serve various
purposes, from personal reflection and emotional processing to academic and
professional development.

• Journal writing, also called journaling, in simple words is an informal way of

writing or a method of penning down emotions, experiences, thoughts,
events, etc.

• It can be a written or a typed medium of records where the person pens down
the thoughts, observations, experiences, etc.

• This can be written on a daily or periodic basis, or when there is an urge to

write. It can be a record of anything and everything. 3
 Benefits of Journal Writing

• Emotional Health:
• Stress Relief: Writing about thoughts and feelings can help reduce stress by providing a
healthy outlet for emotions.
• Emotional Clarity: It allows individuals to explore and understand their emotions more
deeply, often leading to greater self-awareness.
• Mood Enhancement: Regularly journaling can boost mood and overall emotional well-
being.
• Communication Skills:
• Writing Skills: Regular writing practice can improve overall writing skills.
• Expressiveness: It can enhance one’s ability to articulate thoughts and emotions clearly.

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 Benefits of Journal Writing
• Mental Health:
• Cognitive Processing: Journaling can improve cognitive functions like memory and
comprehension.
• Problem-Solving: It helps in organizing thoughts, which can lead to better problem-
solving abilities.
• Self-Discipline: The regular practice of journaling can enhance self-discipline and goal-
setting capabilities.
• Personal Growth:
• Self-Discovery: It is a tool for self-reflection, helping individuals discover their values,
beliefs, and desires.
• Goal Achievement: Journaling can help track progress towards goals and maintain
motivation.
• Creativity: It encourages creativity by providing a space for free expression without
judgment. 5
 Types of Journals

• Personal Journal: Focuses on daily events, thoughts, and feelings. It’s often used for
emotional and mental clarity.
• Travel Journal: Captures experiences, thoughts, and memories from travels. It can
include descriptions of places, people, and activities.
• Dream Journal: Records dreams and their potential meanings. This can help in
understanding subconscious thoughts and emotions.
• Gratitude Journal: Lists things the writer is thankful for, promoting a positive outlook
on life.
• Bullet Journal: Combines planning, to-do lists, and diary entries. It’s a highly
customizable organizational tool.

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 Types of Journals

• Art Journal: Includes sketches, drawings, and other artistic expressions

along with or instead of text.
• Academic Journal: Used by students to reflect on their learning
experiences and academic progress.
• Professional Journal: Helps professionals track their career
development, project progress, and professional goals.

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 Tips for Effective Journal Writing
• Consistency: Write regularly, whether daily or weekly, to build the habit
and gain the most benefits.
• Honesty: Be truthful and open in your entries. This is a private space for
genuine self-expression.
• No Rules: Allow yourself the freedom to write without worrying about
grammar, spelling, or structure.
• Prompt Usage: Use writing prompts if you’re stuck. Prompts can inspire
new thoughts and directions.
• Review: Occasionally review past entries to reflect on your progress and
patterns in your thoughts and behavior.

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 Tips for Effective Journal Writing

• Privacy: Ensure your journal is kept in a secure place to maintain your

privacy.
• Flexibility: Allow yourself to experiment with different types of journals
and writing styles to see what works best for you.
• Supplement with Other Media: Incorporate drawings, photos, or clippings
to enhance your journal entries.

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 Process of Journal writing

• Choose Medium
Writing • Review your entry
Maintenance
• Set Time • Reflect your feelings
• Gather Material • Date • Set Goals Regular Review
• Choose Topic Stay Flexible
• Begin Writing Incorporate Multimedia
• Length & Detail • Privacy and Security

Preparation Reflection

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 Process of Journal writing
• Journal writing is a personal and flexible process that can be tailored to individual preferences and goals.
Step-by-Step Guide to Journal Writing
1. Preparation
• Choose Your Medium:
• Physical Journal: Select a notebook or diary that you like. The physical act of writing can be therapeutic for
some people.
• Digital Journal: Use a computer, tablet, or smartphone with a word processor or a dedicated journaling app.
Digital journals offer convenience and can include multimedia elements.
• Set Aside Time:
• Dedicate a specific time each day or week for journaling. Consistency helps in making journaling a habit.
• Choose a quiet and comfortable place where you can write without distractions.
• Gather Materials:
• For physical journals, have pens, pencils, and any other preferred writing tools.
• For digital journals, ensure your device is charged and any necessary software is installed.

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 Process of Journal writing
2. Writing
• Start with a Date:
• Begin each entry with the date. This helps in keeping track of your entries chronologically.
• Choose a Topic or Prompt:
• Free Writing: Write about whatever comes to mind without a specific topic. This can be a stream of
consciousness style.
• Prompts: Use writing prompts to guide your entries. Prompts can be questions, quotes, or specific themes (e.g.,
"What am I grateful for today?").
• Begin Writing:
• Write honestly and openly. Don’t worry about grammar, spelling, or punctuation. The goal is to express yourself
freely.
• Focus on your thoughts, feelings, and experiences. Describe events, reflect on emotions, and explore ideas.
• Length and Detail:
• Write as much or as little as you feel necessary. Some days you might write a few sentences, while other days
you might fill several pages.
• Include details that are meaningful to you, such as sensory experiences, dialogues, and reflections.
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 Process of Journal writing
3. Reflection
• Review Your Entry:
• After writing, read through your entry. This can help in processing your thoughts and gaining insights.
• Highlight or underline key points or recurring themes.
• Reflect on Your Feelings:
• Consider how writing the entry made you feel. Did it provide relief, clarity, or new perspectives?
• Set Intentions or Goals:
• Use your reflections to set intentions or goals. For example, if you wrote about a challenging situation, consider
how you might address it going forward.

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 Process of Journal writing
4. Maintenance
• Regular Review:
• Periodically review past entries to observe patterns, progress, and changes over time. This can provide valuable
insights into your personal growth.
• Stay Flexible:
• Allow yourself to adapt your journaling practice as needed. If you find a particular method or prompt more
effective, incorporate it more regularly.
• Incorporate Multimedia:
• Enhance your journal with photos, drawings, clippings, or other media that are relevant to your entries.
• Privacy and Security:
• Ensure your journal is kept private. For physical journals, store them in a secure place. For digital journals, use
passwords or encryption if needed.

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15
REFLECTIVE WRITING
Unit # 1
Presented by: Sanaullah Yousafzai
BSN (KMU), MSN (KMU,CONT…)
Objectives
• At the end of this lecture students will be able to:
• Define reflective writing.
• Select reflective writing phrases.
• Define ERA, Gibbs reflective cycle.
• Describe Borton’s development framework
• Detail John’s Model & ORID model
• Discuss 6 features of reflective writing.
• Discuss critical thinking.
Reflective Writing

• REFLECTIVE WRITING: Reflective Writing is a practice in which the

writer describes a real or imaginal scene, event, interaction.
• Describe, Express feelings about your reaction of personal
experience.
• Tell the reader how you felt – before / during/afterwards.
REFLECTION

• usually comes at the end, should look back on your experience and
reflect on it.
• feelings and reactions will be there in reflection and understand WHY
you behaved the way you did .
Cont…
• Experience which leads to decisions.
• Looking at experience from another point of view.
• Critical analysis and evaluation of knowledge and skills.
REFLECTIVE EXPRESSIONS PHRASES
EXAMPLES
• But now as I look back….
• Remembering makes me feel …
• This reminds me of …
• Remembering this has made me realize…
• Now I understand why I felt that way …
Personal Writing
• Will probably be a memory of something that has happened to you.
• Will include thoughts and feelings
• Written in 1st person
Activity
• Choose 1 topic, or choose an event from your life, that you feel fits the personal /
reflective criteria and write an essay on it
• Work in stages:
Stage 1- plan: mindmap / brainstorm / list ideas
Stage 2 – number ideas to organise paragraphs
Stage 3 – write essay
Gibbs model of reflective writing
BORTON’S DEVELOPMENT
FRAMEWORK (1970)
• What – happened.
(identify experience and describe the detail)
• So what –understand this, could I have done differently
(analyse and interpret)
• Now what – I need to do to make things better it will be the consequences of my
actions
(explore alternatives and plan thoughtful action.)
JOHN’S MODEL (1994 VERSION)

• Describe experience
– what affected me, significance to me.
• Reflection
–actions, consequences to me and others, and feelings
• Influences
– internal and external on decision making.
Cont…
• How to deal with this better
– choices and consequences
• Learning
– feelings, future work, changed ways of knowing (evidence, ethics, own
development, interpretation of experience for professional role)
ORID Model
• Objective: discuss your concrete experience
• What did you do, observe, read, and hear?
• Who was involved?
• What was said?
ORID ModelCont…
• Reflective: discuss your (feelings) experience
• How did it feel?
• What does it remind you of?
• Did you feel successful, effective, and knowledgeable?
ORID Model cont…
• Interpretive: discuss your cognitive experience
• What did the experience make you think?
• How did it change your thinking about ____?
• What did you learn?
• What strategies worked best?
• What strategies could be improved?
ORID Model cont…
• Decisional: Can you translate your experience into a
new way of thinking?
• What will you do differently next time?
• How will this experience affect your personal choices, career path, or
use of new skills or information?
• What opinions have you formed and why?
FEATURES OF REFLECTIVE WRITING
1. Reason of writing
- Deliberate and purposeful – commit self to identify learning.
Cont…
2. Writing can help us to order our thoughts
• Impose some order in the content
• Prioritise and identify what is important
• Force to acknowledge issues that may be ignored
• Put hierarchical order to issues
Cont…
• 3. The purpose of creating a permanent record
• Provides a fuller picture of what has going on.
• Can not forget or ignore events.
Cont…
• 4. Creativity through writing
• May lead to creative thinking, where actions are not only justified and defended, but
development of new understandings and perspectives are achieved or understanding of past
situations are seen by different dimensions.
Cont…
• 5. Using writing to develop logical skills

• Logical reasoning, logical skills.

Cont…
• 6. Using writing to develop critical thinking

• Critical thinking – involves problem solving, reasoning, considering

opposing viewpoints and an attitude of enquiry.
LET’S TRY SOME…
• Describe a time in your career where you “failed” at something.
• What happened?
• How did it make you feel?
• How has that event changed you as a person?
• What will you do differently next time?
Critical Thinking
• Critical thinking is the analysis of facts to form a judgment.
• Rational and unbiased analysis.
• Skepticism.
Characteristics
• Self directed
• Self monitored
• Self disciplined
• Self corrective
5 skills of critical thinking
The 5 key critical skills are:

1.Analysis (detailed examination)

2.Communication (sending or receiving information)
3.Creativity (the use of imagination or original ideas to create
something; inventiveness)
4.Open mindedness (welcoming new ideas, arguments, and
information that you typically do not align with.)
5.Problem solving(finding solutions and alternatives)
 Teaching and Learning
Unit II
STAGES IN LEARNING, PHYSICAL
ENVIRONMENT AND WELL-BEING

Muhammad Ziad
Lecturer INS-KMU Peshawar

44
 Outlines of the session:

At the end of this session students will be able to:

• Define learning

• Discuss the experiential learning

• Explain the developmental stages of learning and experiential learning

• Discuss the impact of state of physical health on learning

• Discuss the emotional aspect including stress on learning.

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 Learning

Psychology:

• Behavioural Learning: Learning is defined as a relatively permanent

change in behavior due to experience. This definition emphasizes
observable changes in behavior and often considers the influence of
reinforcement and punishment.
(Skinner, B. F. (1953). "Science and Human Behavior.“)

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 Learning (Cont)

Cognitive Science:

• Cognitive Learning: Learning is seen as the process of acquiring

knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the
senses. It involves mental processes like attention, memory, and problem-
solving.
(Piaget, J. (1952). "The Origins of Intelligence in Children.“)

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 Learning (Cont)

Educational Theory:

• Constructivist Learning: Learning is viewed as an active, constructive

process where learners build new knowledge upon their existing
cognitive frameworks. This approach emphasizes the role of social
interaction and context in learning.
(Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). "Mind in Society: The Development of Higher
Psychological Processes.“)

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 Learning (Cont)

Neuroscience:

• Neuroscientific Perspective: Learning is defined as the process by

which the brain undergoes physical and chemical changes to acquire new
information, skills, or understanding. This perspective focuses on
synaptic plasticity and neural pathways.
(Kandel, E. R., Schwartz, J. H., & Jessell, T. M. (2000). "Principles of Neural
Science.“)

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 Learning (Cont)

Sociocultural Theory:

• Sociocultural Learning: Learning is seen as a social process where

individuals construct knowledge through interactions within their
cultural context. This perspective emphasizes the importance of
language, culture, and social interactions.
(Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). "Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral
Participation.“)

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 Learning (Cont)

Humanistic Psychology:

• Humanistic Learning: Learning is understood as a process of personal

growth and self-actualization, emphasizing the development of the whole
person. It involves self-directed learning, intrinsic motivation, and the
fulfilment of potential.
(Rogers, C. R. (1969). "Freedom to Learn.“)

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 Experiential learning

Experiential learning is a dynamic and effective approach to education

that leverages the power of experience to foster deep and meaningful
learning.

• By engaging learners in
• real-world activities

• encouraging critical reflection,

• experiential learning bridges the gap between theory and practice,

• preparing individuals to apply their knowledge in diverse contexts. 52

Stages of Experiential Learning

• Concrete Experience

• Reflective Observation
Learning
• Abstract Conceptualization
Cycle
• Active Experimentation

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 Stages of Experiential Learning
Learning Cycle:
• Concrete Experience: The process begins with a tangible experience, where
learners actively engage in an activity.
• Reflective Observation: After the experience, learners reflect on what happened,
considering what worked, what didn’t, and why.
• Abstract Conceptualization: Learners then develop theories or concepts based
on their reflections, forming generalizations that can be applied to similar
situations in the future.
• Active Experimentation: Finally, learners apply their new understanding to the
world around them, experimenting with different actions to see the results,
thereby starting the cycle anew.

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 Scenario

•Concrete Experience:
•A nursing student performs an IV insertion for the first time during a clinical rotation,
following the steps and monitoring the patient.
•Reflective Observation:
•After the procedure, the student reflects on what went well (e.g., successful vein access) and
what didn’t (e.g., minor bleeding), considering reasons such as technique and confidence.
•Abstract Conceptualization:
•The student develops ideas to improve, such as adjusting the insertion angle and relaxing
their grip, and generalizes the need for better hand positioning and patient communication.
•Active Experimentation:
•In the next rotation, the student applies these improvements, focusing on technique and
communication, and observes better outcomes, continuing the learning cycle.

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 Stages of Developmental Learning.

Unconscious Conscious Conscious Unconscious

Incompetence Incompetence competence competence

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 Stages of Developmental Learning.

• Unconscious Incompetence:
• Description: At this initial stage, learners are unaware of what they don’t know. They
lack both knowledge and the awareness of their deficiencies.
• Example: A novice nursing student might not realize the complexities involved in
patient care, such as the nuances of bedside manner or the importance of infection
control.
• Conscious Incompetence:
• Description: Learners become aware of their lack of knowledge and skills. This
awareness often motivates them to learn and improve.
• Example: The nursing student starts clinical rotations and realizes they struggle with
inserting IV lines, recognizing the need for practice and learning.

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 Stages of Developmental Learning.
• Conscious Competence:
• Description: Learners acquire the necessary skills and knowledge but must consciously
think about and apply them. Performance is effective but not yet automatic.
• Example: The nursing student, after much practice and feedback, can insert IV lines
correctly but must still focus intently on each step of the procedure.
• Unconscious Competence:
• Description: Skills and knowledge become second nature. Learners can perform tasks
effortlessly and efficiently without conscious thought.
• Example: An experienced nurse can insert IV lines smoothly and quickly, without
needing to deliberate over each step, even in a high-pressure situation.

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 Integration of Developmental Stages with
Experiential Learning
• Concrete Experience helps move learners from unconscious incompetence to
conscious incompetence by revealing knowledge gaps.
• Reflective Observation aids in understanding these gaps, transitioning
learners from conscious incompetence to conscious competence as they
recognize and address their deficiencies.
• Abstract Conceptualization solidifies new knowledge and skills, enabling
learners to theorize and generalize their experiences.
• Active Experimentation allows learners to practice and refine their skills,
moving from conscious competence to unconscious competence as their
actions become automatic and effortless.

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 Impact of state of physical health on learning
Aspect Impact on Learning Examples

Essential for brain function;

Iron deficiency leads to fatigue
Nutrition deficiencies impair cognitive
and impaired attention
abilities
Crucial for memory
consolidation and cognitive Lack of sleep affects exam
Sleep
performance; deprivation performance
hinders focus and retention
Boosts brain health, mood, and Regular physical activity
Exercise reduces stress, enhancing improves academic
cognitive functions performance
Chronic migraines cause
Distracts and exhausts, making
Chronic Pain frequent class absences and
concentration difficult
focus issues 60
Aspect Impact on Learning Examples

Affect access and

Visual impairments need
Disabilities participation; require
adaptive technologies
accommodations

Temporarily impair cognition

The flu results in falling
Acute Illnesses and energy, leading to missed
behind in studies
classes

Impairs cognitive functions Frequent alcohol use reduces

Substance Use
and brain health memory and cognitive abilities

Vital for cognitive function;

Lack of water leads to fatigue
Hydration dehydration affects attention
and concentration issues
and decision-making
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 Impact of state of emotional health on learning
Aspect Impact on Learning Examples
Curiosity and excitement lead
Enhance engagement,
Positive Emotions to better retention and
motivation, and memory
understanding
Impairs cognitive functions,
brain structures, and
High stress levels impair
Stress emotional responses; chronic
focus and memory retention
stress leads to cognitive and
physical issues
Decrease motivation and
Depression impacts a
concentration, leading to
Mental Health Conditions student's ability to engage in
absenteeism and poor
learning activities
performance
Helps navigate social
High emotional intelligence
interactions, collaborate
Emotional Intelligence leads to better collaboration
effectively, and manage
and stress management 62
academic stress
 Aspect Impact on Learning Examples

Techniques like mindfulness, Mindfulness meditation and

exercise, and time regular exercise enhance
Stress Management
management reduce stress and cognitive functioning and
improve focus emotional stability

Access to counselors provides

Peer support and counseling
strategies to handle emotional
Support Systems services help manage stress
challenges, improving
and emotional challenges
engagement and performance

A safe, inclusive, and Encouraging a growth mind-

Positive Learning respectful atmosphere reduces set and providing constructive
Environment stress and promotes positive feedback foster resilience and
emotional engagement confidence

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64
 References:

• Kolb, D. A. (1976). The Learning Style Inventory: Technical Manual. Boston, MA:
McBer.
• Kolb, D.A. (1981). Learning styles and disciplinary differences, in: A.W. Chickering
(Ed.) The Modern American College (pp. 232–255). San Francisco, LA: Jossey-Bass.
• MacKeracher, D. (1996). Making Sense of Adult Learning. Toronto, Ontario: Culture
Concepts.
• https://meds.queensu.ca/ugme-blog/archives/4652

• https://www.inspireeducation.net.au/blog/the-seven-learning-styles/

65
 Teaching and Learning
Unit II
Learning Theories and Characteristics of
Adult Learners

Muhammad Ziad
Lecturer INS-KMU Peshawar

66
 Outlines of the session:

At the end of this session students will be able to:

• Enlist the learning theories.
• Discuss the interactive learning theories.
• Discuss physical environment conducive to wellbeing and learning.
• Explain behavioural, cognitive, humanistic and dialectical (interactive)
theories in relation to a conducive learning.

67
 Learning Theories

Four major theories of how people "learn”

• Behaviorism: Stimulus Response

• Cognitivist : Flow of Knowledge

• Constructivism: Mental Models

• Social & contextual: Learn from and with others

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 Behaviorism Learning Theory

Behaviorism
Key behaviorist thinkers including Thorndike, Pavlov and Skinner.

• Hypothesized that learning is a change in observable behavior caused by

external stimuli in the environment.

• The key principle of Behaviorism is the reward or punishment of a new

behavior.

• No focus on mental state in learning.

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 Behaviorism Learning Theory (cont)

Individuals learn to behave through conditioning.

Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning
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 Behaviorism Learning Theory (cont)
Classical Conditioning:
Classical conditioning involves pairing a naturally occurring
stimulus with a response. Then a previous neutral stimulus is paired with
the naturally occurring stimulus. The neutral stimulus begins to evoke the
same response without the natural occurring stimulus.

• Ivan Pavlov is known for using dogs for behavioral tests.

• He used a bell to teach the dogs to know that food was being given and it
resulted in the dogs salivating while waiting for the food.
• This became known as classical conditioning

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Behaviorism Learning Theory (cont)

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 Behaviorism Learning Theory (cont)
Operant Conditioning: (BF Skinner)
Learner is able to make a connection with the consequences
associated with his/her behavior through positive and negative
reinforcement and punishment.

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 Behaviorism Learning Theory (cont)
Positive reinforcement- offering a rewarding factor to increase a response -words of
encouragement or physical rewards.
• e.g. A mother gives her son praise (reinforcing stimulus) for doing homework
(behavior).

Negative reinforcement- relinquishing a negative factor to increase a response.

• e.g. Removing restrictions from a child
when she follows the rules
is an example of negative reinforcement.
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 Behaviorism Learning Theory (cont)
Positive Punishment- adding negative factor to decreases the chances of a negative
behavior happening again.
• e.g. adding more chores to the list when your child neglects their responsibilities.

Negative Punishment- it involves taking something good or desirable away to reduce

the occurrence of a particular behavior.
• e.g. Losing access to a toy, being grounded, and losing reward tokens

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 Behaviorism Learning Theory (cont)
Thorndike's (1898) law of effect:
According to this principle, behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences
is likely to be repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is less
likely to be repeated.

e.g. Example of law of effect:

• If you study and then get a good grade on a test, you will be more likely to study for
the next exam.
• If you work hard and then receive a promotion and pay raise, you will be more likely
to continue to put in more effort at work.

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Behaviorism Learning Theory (cont)

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 Behaviorism Learning Theory (cont)

CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS:
• A student learns what behaviors are or are not appropriate.
• A student received a bad behavior mark for talking during class. The bad
behavior mark (or punishment) will teach the student that talking while the
teacher is talking is not an appropriate behavior.

• A student could also be classically conditioned to behave a certain way

in a classroom.
• If students realize that they always have pop quizzes when their teacher is
carrying an orange-colored folder, they will learn to prepare for a pop quiz at the
sight of the orange-colored folder, even if there is not a pop quiz.
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 Cognitivism Learning Theory

• The cognitivist revolution replaced behaviorism in 1960s as the dominant

paradigm for understanding the learning process.

• It was important to open the ‘black box’ of the human mind in order to
understand how people came to learn.

• Exploring inner mental activities and processes such as thinking,

memory, knowing, and problem-solving was important and became the
focus of educational psychological exploration.
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 Cognitivism Learning Theory (cont)

Main Assumptions:

• The mental processes involved in learning: – Observing, categorizing,

forming generalizations to make sense of the information provided

• Learning results from internal mental activity and not from externally
imposed stimuli.

• Active participant in the learning process, using various strategies to

process and construct their personal understanding of the content to
which they are exposed
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 Cognitivism Learning Theory (cont)

Jean Piaget

Constructed models of child development and the learning process.

• Identified 4 developmental stages and the cognitive processes associated

with each of them

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 Cognitivism Learning Theory (cont)

• Reflexes • Egocentrism • Seriation • Supposition

• Object • Animism • Transitivity • Abstract thinking
Permanence • Difficulty in • Classification
• Little Scientist conservation • Conservation
• Semiotic Function
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 Cognitivism Learning Theory (cont)
Developmental Stages

Sensory-motor: understands his environment through the basic senses.

Pre-operational: Thoughts more flexible, memory and imagination begin

to play a part in learning, capable of more creativity.

Concrete Operational: Can go beyond the basic information given, but

still dependent on concrete material and examples to support reasoning.

Formal Operational: Abstract reasoning becomes increasingly possible.

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 Cognitivism Learning Theory (cont)
CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS:
• Cognitivism is prevalent in our classrooms today.
• Using cues, questions, and advance organizers
• as well as summarizing,
• note taking,
• concept mapping,
• and virtual field trips are all ways that teachers utilize the cognitive
learning theory in their classrooms.

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 Constructivism Learning Theory

• Construct our own understanding and knowledge of the world, through

experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences.

• A learning strategy that draws on students' existing knowledge, beliefs,

and skills.

• With a constructivist approach, students synthesize new understanding

from prior learning and new information.

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 Constructivism Learning Theory (cont)

1: Learners are active Learners are self Regulated

participants

Key Principles

Social Interaction is Encouraged to make sense

necessary for effective of information for
learning themselves
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 Constructivism Learning Theory (cont)
Phases of Learning Constructivism:
Engage: is to pique student interest and get them personally involved in
the lesson, while pre-assessing prior understanding.
Explore: is to get students involved in the topic; providing them with a
chance to build their own understanding.
Explain: to provide students with an opportunity to communicate what
they have learned so far and figure out what it means.
Elaborate: to allow students to use their new knowledge and continue to
explore its implications.
Evaluate: is for both students and teachers to determine how much
learning and understanding has taken place.
87
 Constructivism Learning Theory (cont)

CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS:

• Encourage and support student initiative and autonomy.

• Try to use raw data and primary sources.

• Create a thinking and problem-solving environment.

• Supporting to build student understanding.

• Frame tasks using processes such as classifying, analyzing, predicting

and creating. 88
 Constructivism Learning Theory (cont)
CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS:

• Encourage communication between the teacher and the students and

also between the students.

• Encourage student critical thinking and inquiry by asking them

thoughtful, open-ended questions, and encourage them to ask questions
to each other.

• Provide enough time for students to construct their own meaning when
learning something new

89
Constructivism Learning Theory (cont)

90
 Social Learning Theory

• Social learning theory, proposed by Albert Bandura.

• Emphasizes the importance of observing, modelling, and imitating the

behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others.

• Social learning theory considers how both environmental and cognitive

factors interact to influence human learning and behavior.

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 Social Learning Theory (cont)

• SLT agrees with the behaviorist learning theories of classical

conditioning and operant conditioning. However, adds two important
ideas:
Mediating processes occur between stimuli & responses.
Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of
observational learning.

92
 Social Learning Theory (cont)

Observational Learning:

• We observe the people around them behaving in various ways.

Individuals that are observed are called models.

• In society, children are surrounded by many influential models, such as

parents within the family, characters on children’s TV, friends within
their peer group and teachers at school.

• Reinforcement and punishment can also play role in social learning.

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 Social Learning Theory (cont)

Mediational Processes

• Observational learning could not occur unless cognitive processes were

at work.

• These mental factors mediate (i.e., intervene) in the learning process to

determine whether a new response is acquired.

94
Social Learning Theory (cont)

95
 Social Learning Theory (cont)

Mediational Processes

Attention (whether we notice the behavior)

Retention (whether we remember the behavior)

Reproduction (whether we are able to perform the behavior)

Motivation (whether the perceived rewards outweigh the perceived costs).

96
 Social Learning Theory (cont)

CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS:

Social learning theory can be used to encourage and teach desirable

behaviors in the classroom through the use of positive reinforcement and
rewards.

For example, a student who is praised for raising their hand to speak will
more than likely repeat that behavior.

97
 Key Elements of a Conducive Physical
Environment

Temperature Aesthetics
Ergonomic Spatial Safety and
Lighting Air Quality and Noise Levels and
Furniture Design Accessibility
Humidity Decoration

98
 Key Elements of a Conducive Physical
Environment
• Lighting:
Natural Light: Maximizes exposure to daylight, which is linked to improved mood,
alertness, and productivity.
Artificial Lighting: Ensures adequate and adjustable lighting to reduce eye strain and
accommodate various activities.
• Air Quality:
Ventilation: Provides proper ventilation to maintain fresh air and reduce indoor
pollutants.
Air Filtration: Uses air purifiers to remove allergens and other airborne contaminants.
• Temperature and Humidity:
Climate Control: Maintains a comfortable temperature and humidity level to enhance
concentration and comfort.
Seasonal Adjustments: Adapts the environment to seasonal changes to ensure consistent
comfort. 99
 Key Elements of a Conducive Physical
Environment
• Noise Levels:
Soundproofing: Incorporates materials and designs to minimize external noise and create
a quiet learning atmosphere.
Acoustic Design: Uses acoustic panels and other sound-absorbing materials to reduce
internal noise and echoes.
• Ergonomic Furniture:
Adjustable Desks and Chairs: Provides furniture that supports good posture and reduces
physical strain.
Flexible Seating: Offers a variety of seating options to accommodate different
preferences and activities.
• Spatial Design:
• Layout: Designs spaces to facilitate movement, interaction, and accessibility.
• Zones: Creates distinct areas for different activities (e.g., quiet study, group work,
relaxation). 100
 Key Elements of a Conducive Physical
Environment
• Aesthetics and Decoration:
Color Schemes: Uses colors that promote calmness, focus, and creativity.
Artwork and Plants: Incorporates elements that enhance visual appeal and provide a
sense of connection to nature.
• Safety and Accessibility:
Safe Materials: Uses non-toxic, hypoallergenic materials to minimize health risks.
Universal Design: Ensures that the environment is accessible to individuals with
disabilities, including ramps, wide doorways, and assistive technology.

101
102
 References:

• Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective.

Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 1–26.
• Cassady, J. C., & Johnson, R. E. (2002). Cognitive test anxiety and
academic performance. Contemporary
• Educational Psychology, 27(2), 270–295.
• Edelman, C. L., Kudzma, E. C., & Mandle, C. L. (2014). Health
promotion throughout the life span (8th ed.).
• St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Mosby.
• Guthrie, E. R. (1935). The psychology of learning. New York, NY:
Harper &
Row. ..........................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
103
 Teaching and Learning
Unit III
Learning Cycles, Models and Learning Styles

Muhammad Ziad
Lecturer INS-KMU Peshawar

104
 Outlines of the session:

At the end of this session students will be able to:

• Define Learning cycle.

• Explain Models of Kolb & Tayler & how they impact on learning.

• Enlist Types/ Learning styles.

• Explain Problem solving & the Learning cycle.

105
 Learning cycle

A framework, which provides a design for a learning environment.

• Organization of course documents,
• Creating opportunities for problem solving,
• Interconnected learning tasks,
• Constant feedback,
• And ongoing change in course delivery.

106
David Kolb's Learning Model

107
 David Kolb's Learning Model

Learning Definition:

• The process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of

experience.

• Knowledge results from the combination of grasping experience and

transforming it. - Kolb (1984, 41)

108
 David Kolb's Learning Model

• David Kolb an American psychologist presented the model in 1984.

• Kolb’s proposed learning styles are one of the best-known learning styles
theories in practice today.

• Kolb believed that our learning styles emerge due to three key
influencers: our genetics, life experiences, and the demands of our
present environment

109
 David Kolb's Theory,
The Experiential Learning Cycle

110
 Four stages learning cycle

1. Concrete Experience –(feeling) a new experience of situation is

encountered, or a reinterpretation of existing experience
2. Reflective Observation (watching) any inconsistencies between
experience and understanding.
3. Abstract Conceptualization (thinking) Reflection gives rise to a new
idea, or a modification of an existing abstract concept.
4. Active Experimentation (doing)the learner applies them to the world
around them to see what results 111
Processing Continuum &Perception
Continuum
• East-west axis
Processing
Continuum (how we
approach a task)

• North-south axis is
called the Perception
Continuum (our
emotional response,
or how we think or
feel about it). 112
 Four learning cycle Styles
Diverging (feeling & watching- CE/RO):

• Divergers’ dominant abilities tend to be Concrete Experience and

Reflective Observation.

• Visualizing the “big picture” and organizing smaller bits of information

into a meaningful whole.

• Creative, emotional, and wells of ideas.

• Musicians, artists, psychologists, and fine arts.

113
 Four Types learning cycle

Assimilating (watching and thinking - AC/RO):

• Assimilators lean towards the areas of Reflective Observation and

Abstract Conceptualization.

• Fascinated with abstract ideas.

• Not concerned with the practical applications of theories.

• Assimilators often thrive in STEM fields or fields that involve planning

and research. 114
 Four Types learning cycle

Converging (doing and thinking - AC/AE):

• People with this learning style have dominant abilities in the areas of
Abstract Conceptualization and Active Experimentation.

• Practical application of ideas and tend to do best in situations with a

problem that require a singular, ideal solution.

• Typically use a trial-and-error approach.

• Technical fields or action-oriented jobs, such as sales and marketing. 115

 Four Types learning cycle

Accommodating (doing and feeling - CE/AE):

• Strong inclinations towards Concrete Experience and Active

Experimentation.

• Tend to rely on others for information than carry out their own analysis.

• They enjoy putting plans into motion immediately and seeing real-time
results.

• Greatest risk-takers and adventurers. 116

Taylor’s Model of the Learning Cycle

117
 Taylor’s Model of the Learning Cycle…

• First articulated by Marilyn Taylor in 1979, then refined in 1987.

• Ensure stay focused on moving ahead, rather than getting stuck in the
“I’ve made a terrible mistake” self-talk.

• Pattern of Disorientation, Exploration, Reorientation, Equilibrium.

• Then, for lifelong learners, a new period of Disorientation as the cycle

begins again.

118
Taylor’s Model of the Learning Cycle…

119
 Taylor’s Model of the Learning Cycle…

• Disorientation: exposure to unfamiliar, challenging state of confusion

like new technology, result in anxiety & loss of confidence.

• Exploration: able to identify problem, gather information from different

sources, develop alternative solution.

• Reorientation: synthesis & integration of ideas, own ways of learning

explored. Other s facilitation may help. Self as a change agent.

• Equilibrium: consolidation, elaboration, refining and applying new

idea/skills. 120
 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS

• Educators should ensure that the activities are designed and carried out
in ways that offer each learner the chance to engage in the manner that
suits them best.

• Individuals can be helped to learn more effectively by the

identification of their lesser preferred learning style and through the
strengthening of these.

• Teachers should assess the learning style of their students and adapt
their classroom methods to best fit each student’s learning style. 121
 Types of Learning Styles
• Although most people use a combination of the learning styles, they
usually have a clear preference for one.
• Knowing and understanding the types of learning styles is important
for students of any age.
• It is advantageous for students to understand their type of learning
style early on so that homework and learning may become easier and
less stressful in the future.
• It’s important to practice and train the other types of learning styles
early on so that, one can utilize the other types just as effectively.

122
 Visual Learning (Spatial)
• Visual learner prefer to use pictures, images, diagrams, colors, and
mind maps.

• Enjoy reading, have good handwriting, are very detail-oriented, are

organized, and have a keen awareness of colors and shapes.

• They remember people’s faces better than their names, and they often
need to maintain eye contact with a person to concentrate on a
conversation.

• Visual learners often pursue careers such as architecture, engineering,

project management, or design.

123
 Visual Learning (Spatial)

Attributes of the visual learner

• Create visual diagram
• Graphic results of a survey
• Create a poster
• Draw a map
• Create a power point
• Create a video

124
 Verbal Learning (Linguistic)
• The verbal learner is someone who prefers using words, both in speech
and in writing to assist in their learning.(notes Taking)

• They make the most of word based techniques, scripting, and reading
content aloud.

• They learn best by hearing and speaking.

• More talkative than the average person, are very social, enjoy hearing
stories and jokes, understand concepts by talking about them, and may
excel in music or the performing arts.

• Verbal learners often pursue public speaking, writing, administration,

journalism or politics. 125
 Verbal Learning (Linguistic)

Attributes of the verbal learner

• Teach concepts
• Write instructions
• Create Adds
• Keep a journal
• Re tell experience in own words
• Teach concept mapping
• Write a story

126
 Aural Learning (Auditory/Musical)
• People who prefer using sound (obviously), rhythms, music,
recordings, clever rhymes, and so on.

• They remember names and recognize tone of voice well, while not
always remembering people’s faces.

• They often hum or sing, and they may whisper to themselves while
reading.

• Aural learners often pursue careers such as musician, recording

engineer, speech pathologist, or language teacher.

127
 Aural Learning (Auditory/Musical)

Attributes of the auditory or aural learner

• Write a song

• Create a dance

• Write a jingle

• Create a rhyme

128
 Physical Learning (kinesthetic)

• These are the “learn by doing". People that use their body to assist in
their learning.

• Drawing diagrams, using physical objects, or role playing are all

strategies of the Physical learner.

• Interested in careers such as emergency services, safety representative,

physical education, or entertainment (such as acting or dance).

129
 Physical Learning (kinesthetic)

Attributes of the Physical/ kinesthetic learner

• Create a game

• Do an experiments

• Construct a model

• Built a representation

• Create a sport
130
 Logical learning (Mathematical)
• The people who prefer using logic, reasoning, and “systems” to explain
or understand concepts.

• They aim to understand the reasons behind the learning, and have a
good ability to understand the bigger picture.

• Logical learners often lean towards classifying and grouping

information to help them further understand it.

• Pursue careers in fields such as scientific research, accountancy,

bookkeeping or computer programming

131
 Logical learning (Mathematical)

Attributes of the Logical/ Mathematical

learner

• Create a code make a time line

• Compare contrast ideas

• Design a map

• Show a pattern

• Teach concept mapping 132

 Social learning (Interpersonal)

• These people are the ones who enjoy learning in groups or with other
people, and aim to work with others as much as possible.

• Social learners may pursue counseling, teaching, training and

coaching, sales, politics, and human resources among others.

133
 Social learning (Interpersonal)

Attributes of social learner:

• Hold discussions with others

• Tell stories/ Role play

• Surveys and interview others

• Teach a cooperative game/ team work

• Mixed up and enjoy social gatherings

134
 Solitary learning (Intrapersonal)

• The solitary learner prefers to learn alone and through self-study.

• Their concentration is at its best when focus on thoughts and feelings

without the distraction of others.

• Authors and researchers often have a strong solitary learning style.

135
 Solitary learning (Intrapersonal)

Attributes of social learner:

• Keep a journal
• Write about personal experience( autobiography)
• Think about, and plan
• Reads books
• Self study

136
Which type of learner you are?

137
 Problems solving
Significance:
• Problems solving is a vital element of the curriculum.
• Enable students to use their newly acquired knowledge in meaningful
way in real-life activities and assists them in working at higher levels of
thinking.
• It presupposes that students can take on some of the responsibility for
their own learning
• can take personal action to solve problems,
• resolve conflicts,
• discuss alternatives,
• and focus on thinking. 138
 Problems solving…

Problem:
• Any situation where you have an opportunity to make a difference, and
to make things better
• A problem arises when we need to overcome some obstacle in order to
get from our current state to a desired state.

139
 Problems solving…
Problem-solving
is the ability to identify and solve problems by applying appropriate
skills systematically.
Jabberwocky
• Problem solving is the process that an organism implements in order to
try to get from the current state to the desired state.
Three basic functions of problem solving:
• Seeking information
• Generating new knowledge
• Making decisions
140
 5 stages model of Problems solving

• Here is a five-stage model that most students

• can easily memorize
• and put into action
• which has direct applications to many areas of everyday life to solve
their problems.

141
5 stages model of Problems solving

Evaluate Define
the plan problem

Implement Analyze
& Monitor problem/cau
Plan se
Develop plan
(Generating
possible
solutions) 142
 1.Define the problem.( actually what
happened)

•Diagnose the situation so that your focus is on the cause of the problem,
not just its symptoms.

• Students need to be aware of any barriers or constraints that may be

preventing them from achieving their goal.

143
 2. Analyze the cause
(what, how, where, when, whom)
• Review and document how processes currently work (who does what,
with what information, using what tools, communicating with what
organizations and individuals, in what time frame, using what format,
etc).

• Use of factual information, comparison of expectations to reality and a

focus on root causes of a problem.

• Evaluate the possible impact of new tools and revised policies in the
development of a model of “what should be.”

144
 3. Develop the Plan
(Generate multiple strategies or ideas)

• Developing a road map for investigating alternatives. Brainstorming and

team problem-solving techniques are both useful tools in this stage of
problem solving.

• Identify various solutions. After the nature and parameters of a problem

are understood, students will need to select one or more appropriate
strategies to help resolve the problem.

145
 4.Implement & Monitor the plan
• Implement and follow up on the solution
• Try to work through a selected strategy or combination of strategies
• “sell” the solution to others or facilitate the implementation by
involving the efforts of others.
• The most effective approach, involve others in the implementation as a
way of minimizing resistance to subsequent changes.

146
 5.Evaluate the Plan

• Evaluate the results. It's vitally important that one should assess their
own problem-solving skills and the solutions they generate from using
those skills.
• It is important to know that your desired results are achieved or not
through the selected strategies.

147
148
 References:

• Kolb, D. A. (1976). The Learning Style Inventory: Technical Manual. Boston, MA:
McBer.
• Kolb, D.A. (1981). Learning styles and disciplinary differences, in: A.W. Chickering
(Ed.) The Modern American College (pp. 232–255). San Francisco, LA: Jossey-Bass.
• MacKeracher, D. (1996). Making Sense of Adult Learning. Toronto, Ontario: Culture
Concepts.
• https://meds.queensu.ca/ugme-blog/archives/4652

• https://www.inspireeducation.net.au/blog/the-seven-learning-styles/

149
 Teaching and Learning
Unit IV
Learning Theories and Characteristics of
Adult Learners

Muhammad Ziad
Lecturer INS-KMU Peshawar

150
 Outlines of the session:

At the end of this session students will be able to:

• Define adult learning.
• Discuss adult learners characteristics with psychological, past
experience, time, self and self-direction perspectives
• Identify the factors that influence learning.
• Explain the cognitive and affective aspects and learning
theories

151
 Key Terms

Teaching:

The process of providing information/knowledge or skills to

learners/trainees, and to, by their own actions, make them change their
attitude and behavior.

Facilitation:

Is to guide participants through a process of discussion, reflection

and self earning. 152
 Key Terms

Learning:

The process in which changes occur in skills and behavior as a

result of experience.

Training:

The process through which positive change is brought about in

working capacity of a person.

153
 Key Terms

• Andragogy; (adult learning)

• “the art and science of helping adults learn”
• Adult are persons with a self concept, self directing and being
responsible for their own lives.
• Adults are not content centered; they are self directed and problem
centered, and they need and want useful information that can be readily
adopted.
• Adults need a climate that enables them to assume responsibility for
their learning.

154
 Principles of Adult Learning

Based on Knowles’ Model, Learner

• Accept responsibility for collaborating in planning their experiences.

• Adopt goals of learning experiences as their own goals

• Actively participate in the learning experience

• Pace their own learning

• Participate in monitoring their own progress

155
 How to Learn Effectively

What I hear, I forget.

What I see, I remember.

What I do, I know.

156
 How to Learn Effectively

People do not learn everything that is taught.

• We learn only 20% of what we hear.

• We can use 40% of what we hear and see.

• We can use 80% of what we see, hear and experience.

157
 Characteristics of Adult Learners

There are 6 main characteristics of adult learners according to Malcolm

Knowles (1980, 1984) who was one of the pioneers in this field.

1. Adult learning is self-directed/autonomous

• Actively involved in the learning process.

• Make choices relevant to their learning objectives.

• Direct their learning goals.

• When it comes to workload, proactive in making decisions and in

contributing to the process. 158
 Characteristics of Adult Learners (cont)

2. Adult learning utilizes knowledge & life experiences

• Connect their past experiences with their current knowledge-base and

activities.

• Educators need to be well-versed in how to help students in drawing out

relevant past knowledge and experiences.

• In addition, educators must know how to relate the sum of learners’

experiences to the current learning experiences.

159
 Characteristics of Adult Learners (cont)

3. Adult learning is goal-oriented

• Adult learning is characterized as goal-oriented and intended learning

outcomes should be clearly identified.

• Once the learning goals have been identified, it is now imminent to

align the learning activities such that these objectives are fulfilled within
a certain period of time.

• This approach is a great way to maximize a students’ learning

experience.

160
 Characteristics of Adult Learners (cont)

4. Adult learning is relevancy-oriented

• One of the best ways for adults to learn is by relating the assigned tasks
to their own learning goals.

• If it is clear that the activities they are engaged into, directly contribute
to achieving their personal learning objectives, then they will be
inspired and motivated to engage in projects and successfully complete
them.

161
 Characteristics of Adult Learners (cont)

5. Adult learning highlights practicality

• Placement is a means of helping students to apply the theoretical

concepts learned inside the classroom into real-life situations.

• It is very important for educators to identify appropriate ways and

convert theoretical learning to practical activities.

• Learning is facilitated when appropriate ways of implementing

theoretical knowledge in real life situations are made clear.

162
 Characteristics of Adult Learners (cont)

6. Adult learning encourages collaboration

• Adult learners thrive in collaborative relationships with their educators.

• When learners are considered by their instructors as colleagues, they

become more productive.

• When their contributions are acknowledged, then they are willing to put
out their best work.

163
 Comparison b/w Adult & Child Learner
Child Learner Adult Learner
Dependent Independent
• The teacher is responsible for the • Can share responsibility for their
learning process. own learning b/c they know their
• Taught in direct way own needs
• Learners are passive mostly • Learners are active and engaged.
Inexperience Experience
• Child has little experience • They bring experience into
• Knowledge delivery One fashion educational setting
Learn Blindly Participate
• Learning is information-based and • Weigh pros and cons reflect and
prospective, means future oriented participate.
Motivation Motivation
• Is external via pressure, fear, • Is internal driven by real life
praise needs. 164
Factors that hinder learning

Environmental

Physiological Socio-cultural

Psychological
165
Factors that hinder learning (cont)

Environmental/situational

• Interruption

• Lack of privacy

• Multiple stimuli

• Comfort level

166
Factors that hinder learning (cont)

• Sociocultural/institutional

• Value System

• Language

• Educational background

• Learner non friendly policies

167
Factors that hinder learning (cont)

• Psychological /dispositional

• Anxiety

• Fear

• Anger

• Depression

• Inability to comprehend

• Level of motivation 168

Factors that hinder learning (cont)

• Physiological

• Pain

• Fatigue

• Sensory deprivation

• Oxygen deprivation

169
Factors that Influence/promote learning

Motivation to learn

Developmental capability

Learning environment

Resources for learning

Cultural considerations

Learner’s expectations
170
 Bloom’s taxonomy

• Taxonomy: the branch of science concerned with classification.

• Published in 1956 by a team of cognitive psychologists at the University

of Chicago.

• It is named after the committee’s chairman, Benjamin Bloom (1913–

1999).

• Bloom’s taxonomy is a classification system used to define and

distinguish different levels of human cognition—i.e., thinking, learning,
and understanding.

171
 Purpose Bloom’s taxonomy

Bloom's taxonomy was developed

• to provide a common language for teachers to discuss and exchange

learning and assessment methods.

• Specific learning outcomes can be derived from the taxonomy, though it

is most commonly used to assess learning on a variety of cognitive
levels.
172
 Bloom’s taxonomy (Cont)

Bloom Taxonomy is a set of three hierarchical models used to classify

educational learning objective into levels of complexity and specificity.

Cognitive

Psychomotor Affective
173
Old Bloom’s Taxonomy

174
Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy

175
 Cognitive Domain

Cognitive:
Evaluation

• (Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill,

Krathwohl, 1956) Synthesis

• what learner actually knows and Analysis

understands (intellectual behaviors)
Application

Comprehension

Knowledge

176
Application of cognitive domain

177
 Affective Domain

Affective Domain:

(Bloom, Masia, Krathwohl, 1964)

• Feelings • Humanistic approach

• Attitudes • Learning is defined as a process of

• Opinions developing one’s own potential

with the goal of becoming a self
• Values
actualized person.
178
Affective Domain (Cont)

179
Application of Affective Domain

180
 Psychomotor domain:

Psychomotor:

• Integration of knowledge and physical skills

• Perform the behaviors

(Dave’s psychomotor domain-1975 )

181
Psychomotor domain:

182
Application of Psychomotor domain:

183
 Role of teacher in adult learning (knowle’s
Model)

• Relate learner with value and respect for the feelings and ideas

• Create an environment that facilitate learning (comfortable physical and

psychological)

• Involve learner in assessing and determining their learning needs

• Help learner in developing their learning contracts

184
 Role of teacher in adult learning (knowle’s
Model)

• Collaborate with learner in planning the content and instructional

strategies

• Help learn to make maximum use of their own experience with learning
process

• Assist learner in developing strategies to meet the learning objectives

• Assist learner to identify the resources to meet the objectives

185
186
 References:

• Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective.

Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 1–26.
• Cassady, J. C., & Johnson, R. E. (2002). Cognitive test anxiety and
academic performance. Contemporary
• Educational Psychology, 27(2), 270–295.
• Edelman, C. L., Kudzma, E. C., & Mandle, C. L. (2014). Health
promotion throughout the life span (8th ed.).
• St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Mosby.
• Guthrie, E. R. (1935). The psychology of learning. New York, NY:
Harper & Row.
187
 Teaching and Learning
Unit IV
Learning Theories and Characteristics of
Adult Learners

Muhammad Ziad
Lecturer INS-KMU Peshawar

188
 Outlines of the session:

At the end of this session students will be able to:

• Define Key Terms.
• Discuss principles of learning.
• Discuss characteristics of adult learning.
• Differentiate between adult and child learning.
• Identify factors that influence learning.
• Discuss domains of learning.
• Explain different learning theories and their classroom implications.
189
 Learning Theories

Four major theories of how people "learn”

• Behaviorism: Stimulus Response

• Cognitivist : Flow of Knowledge

• Constructivism: Mental Models

• Social & contextual: Learn from and with others

190
 Behaviorism Learning Theory

Behaviorism
Key behaviorist thinkers including Thorndike, Pavlov and Skinner.

• Hypothesized that learning is a change in observable behavior caused by

external stimuli in the environment.

• The key principle of Behaviorism is the reward or punishment of a new

behavior.

• No focus on mental state in learning.

191
 Behaviorism Learning Theory (cont)

Individuals learn to behave through conditioning.

Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning
192
 Behaviorism Learning Theory (cont)
Classical Conditioning:
Classical conditioning involves pairing a naturally occurring
stimulus with a response. Then a previous neutral stimulus is paired with
the naturally occurring stimulus. The neutral stimulus begins to evoke the
same response without the natural occurring stimulus.

• Ivan Pavlov is known for using dogs for behavioral tests.

• He used a bell to teach the dogs to know that food was being given and it
resulted in the dogs salivating while waiting for the food.
• This became known as classical conditioning

193
Behaviorism Learning Theory (cont)

194
 Behaviorism Learning Theory (cont)
Operant Conditioning: (BF Skinner)
Learner is able to make a connection with the consequences
associated with his/her behavior through positive and negative
reinforcement and punishment.

195
 Behaviorism Learning Theory (cont)
Positive reinforcement- offering a rewarding factor to increase a response -words of
encouragement or physical rewards.
• e.g. A mother gives her son praise (reinforcing stimulus) for doing homework
(behavior).

Negative reinforcement- relinquishing a negative factor to increase a response.

• e.g. Removing restrictions from a child
when she follows the rules
is an example of negative reinforcement.
196
 Behaviorism Learning Theory (cont)
Positive Punishment- adding negative factor to decreases the chances of a negative
behavior happening again.
• e.g. adding more chores to the list when your child neglects their responsibilities.

Negative Punishment- it involves taking something good or desirable away to reduce

the occurrence of a particular behavior.
• e.g. Losing access to a toy, being grounded, and losing reward tokens

197
 Behaviorism Learning Theory (cont)
Thorndike's (1898) law of effect:
According to this principle, behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences
is likely to be repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is less
likely to be repeated.

e.g. Example of law of effect:

• If you study and then get a good grade on a test, you will be more likely to study for
the next exam.
• If you work hard and then receive a promotion and pay raise, you will be more likely
to continue to put in more effort at work.

198
Behaviorism Learning Theory (cont)

199
 Behaviorism Learning Theory (cont)

CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS:
• A student learns what behaviors are or are not appropriate.
• A student received a bad behavior mark for talking during class. The bad
behavior mark (or punishment) will teach the student that talking while the
teacher is talking is not an appropriate behavior.

• A student could also be classically conditioned to behave a certain way

in a classroom.
• If students realize that they always have pop quizzes when their teacher is
carrying an orange-colored folder, they will learn to prepare for a pop quiz at the
sight of the orange-colored folder, even if there is not a pop quiz.
200
 Cognitivism Learning Theory

• The cognitivist revolution replaced behaviorism in 1960s as the dominant

paradigm for understanding the learning process.

• It was important to open the ‘black box’ of the human mind in order to
understand how people came to learn.

• Exploring inner mental activities and processes such as thinking,

memory, knowing, and problem-solving was important and became the
focus of educational psychological exploration.
201
 Cognitivism Learning Theory (cont)

Main Assumptions:

• The mental processes involved in learning: – Observing, categorizing,

forming generalizations to make sense of the information provided

• Learning results from internal mental activity and not from externally
imposed stimuli.

• Active participant in the learning process, using various strategies to

process and construct their personal understanding of the content to
which they are exposed
202
 Cognitivism Learning Theory (cont)

Jean Piaget

Constructed models of child development and the learning process.

• Identified 4 developmental stages and the cognitive processes associated

with each of them

203
 Cognitivism Learning Theory (cont)

• Reflexes • Egocentrism • Seriation • Supposition

• Object • Animism • Transitivity • Abstract thinking
Permanence • Difficulty in • Classification
• Little Scientist conservation • Conservation
• Semiotic Function
204
 Cognitivism Learning Theory (cont)
Developmental Stages

Sensory-motor: understands his environment through the basic senses.

Pre-operational: Thoughts more flexible, memory and imagination begin

to play a part in learning, capable of more creativity.

Concrete Operational: Can go beyond the basic information given, but

still dependent on concrete material and examples to support reasoning.

Formal Operational: Abstract reasoning becomes increasingly possible.

205
 Cognitivism Learning Theory (cont)
CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS:
• Cognitivism is prevalent in our classrooms today.
• Using cues, questions, and advance organizers
• as well as summarizing,
• note taking,
• concept mapping,
• and virtual field trips are all ways that teachers utilize the cognitive
learning theory in their classrooms.

206
 Constructivism Learning Theory

• Construct our own understanding and knowledge of the world, through

experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences.

• A learning strategy that draws on students' existing knowledge, beliefs,

and skills.

• With a constructivist approach, students synthesize new understanding

from prior learning and new information.

207
 Constructivism Learning Theory (cont)

1: Learners are active Learners are self Regulated

participants

Key Principles

Social Interaction is Encouraged to make sense

necessary for effective of information for
learning themselves
208
 Constructivism Learning Theory (cont)
Phases of Learning Constructivism:
Engage: is to pique student interest and get them personally involved in
the lesson, while pre-assessing prior understanding.
Explore: is to get students involved in the topic; providing them with a
chance to build their own understanding.
Explain: to provide students with an opportunity to communicate what
they have learned so far and figure out what it means.
Elaborate: to allow students to use their new knowledge and continue to
explore its implications.
Evaluate: is for both students and teachers to determine how much
learning and understanding has taken place.
209
 Constructivism Learning Theory (cont)

CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS:

• Encourage and support student initiative and autonomy.

• Try to use raw data and primary sources.

• Create a thinking and problem-solving environment.

• Supporting to build student understanding.

• Frame tasks using processes such as classifying, analyzing, predicting

and creating. 210
 Constructivism Learning Theory (cont)
CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS:

• Encourage communication between the teacher and the students and

also between the students.

• Encourage student critical thinking and inquiry by asking them

thoughtful, open-ended questions, and encourage them to ask questions
to each other.

• Provide enough time for students to construct their own meaning when
learning something new

211
Constructivism Learning Theory (cont)

212
 Social Learning Theory

• Social learning theory, proposed by Albert Bandura.

• Emphasizes the importance of observing, modelling, and imitating the

behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others.

• Social learning theory considers how both environmental and cognitive

factors interact to influence human learning and behavior.

213
 Social Learning Theory (cont)

• SLT agrees with the behaviorist learning theories of classical

conditioning and operant conditioning. However, adds two important
ideas:
Mediating processes occur between stimuli & responses.
Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of
observational learning.

214
 Social Learning Theory (cont)

Observational Learning:

• We observe the people around them behaving in various ways.

Individuals that are observed are called models.

• In society, children are surrounded by many influential models, such as

parents within the family, characters on children’s TV, friends within
their peer group and teachers at school.

• Reinforcement and punishment can also play role in social learning.

215
 Social Learning Theory (cont)

Mediational Processes

• Observational learning could not occur unless cognitive processes were

at work.

• These mental factors mediate (i.e., intervene) in the learning process to

determine whether a new response is acquired.

216
Social Learning Theory (cont)

217
 Social Learning Theory (cont)

Mediational Processes

Attention (whether we notice the behavior)

Retention (whether we remember the behavior)

Reproduction (whether we are able to perform the behavior)

Motivation (whether the perceived rewards outweigh the perceived costs).

218
 Social Learning Theory (cont)

CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS:

Social learning theory can be used to encourage and teach desirable

behaviors in the classroom through the use of positive reinforcement and
rewards.

For example, a student who is praised for raising their hand to speak will
more than likely repeat that behavior.

219
220
 References:

• Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective.

Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 1–26.
• Cassady, J. C., & Johnson, R. E. (2002). Cognitive test anxiety and
academic performance. Contemporary
• Educational Psychology, 27(2), 270–295.
• Edelman, C. L., Kudzma, E. C., & Mandle, C. L. (2014). Health
promotion throughout the life span (8th ed.).
• St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Mosby.
• Guthrie, E. R. (1935). The psychology of learning. New York, NY:
Harper & Row.
221
 Teaching and Learning
Unit V

Health Education/ Health Promotion

Muhammad Ziad
Lecturer INS-KMU Peshawar

222
 Outlines of the session:
• At the end of this unit; the learners would be able to:
• Define key terms
• Discuss the basic goals of health education, and factors influencing on health
education
• Utilize the health belief model and health promotion model and relate to cognitive
and behaviorist theories
• Discuss the steps in developing the health education program
• Utilize effectively a variety of teaching aids and creative application of teaching
strategies
• Plan patient and family education session.

223
 What is health education?

Health:
The WHO Constitution of 1948 defines health as a state of complete
physical, social and mental well-being, and not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity (WHO).
Health Education:
Consciously constructed opportunities for learning involving some form of
communication designed to improve health literacy, including improving
knowledge, and developing life skills, which are conducive to individual
and community health (WHO).
224
 What is health education?

Process which affects changes in the health practices of people by

changing in knowledge and attitude.
OR
Teaching process providing basic knowledge and practice of health,
so as to be interpreted into proper health behavior.

225
 Goals of Health Education

• Health promotion and disease prevention.

• Early diagnosis and management.

• Utilization of available health services.

• Fight Misconceptions

• Improve Decision-making

226
 Specific objectives of health education

1. To make health an asset valued by the community.

2. To increase knowledge of the factors that affect health.

3. To encourage behavior which promotes and maintains health.

4. To encourage appropriate use of health services especially preventive

services.

5. To inform the public about medical advances, their uses and their
limitations.
227
 Stages for health education

1. Stage of Sensitization: Emergent issues AIDS & Polio

2. Stage of Publicity: Media & other advertising methods for info

3. Stage of Education: Through Imam, Leaders and Schoolmasters etc.

4. Stage of Attitude change: People having good attitude will motivate others

5. Stage of Motivation and Action: Once motivation is incited action in right

direction take place, and that action result as behavior.

6. Stage of Community Transformation (social change): whole community

transferred to healthy community.
228
 Contents of health education
1. Personal hygiene
2. Proper health habits
3. Nutrition education
4. Personal preventive measures
5. Safety rules
6. Proper use of health services
7. Mental health
8. Sex education
9. Special education (occupation, mothers, etc.)
229
 Principles of health education
1. Interest.
2. Participation.
3. Proceed from known to unknown.
4. Comprehension (level of understanding).
5. Reinforcement by repetition.
6. Motivation
7. Learning by doing
8. Good human relations

230
 Communication

• Communication: Exchange of information among people.

• Communicator: the person or the team give the message (Educator).

• Message: the contents (materials) of health education

• Channel: method of carrying the message

• Audience: the receivers (users or targets) of the message

231
 Good communication technique
• Source credibility.
• Clear message.
• Good channel: individual, group & mass education.
• Receiver: ready, interested, not occupied.
• Feed back.
• Observe non-verbal cues.
• Active listening.
• Establishing good relationship. 232
 Educator
• Personnel of health services.
• Nursing and medical students, & social workers.
• School personnel.
• Community leaders & influential.

Requirements:
• Personality: popular, influential and interested in work.
• Efficiency trained and prepared for the job.
• Must show good examples.
233
 Message
• What information to be communicated.
• Simple, at the level of understanding.
• Culturally accepted.
• Interested.
• Meet a felt need.
• Avoid verbiage.
• Use audiovisual aids.

234
 Ways of Education
Individual
Face to face
Education through spoken word.
A- Occasions of health appraisal.
B- Home visits:

Nurses
Health visitors
Social workers

235
 Ways of Education
Group
a. Lessons and lectures in schools.
b. lectures in work places e.g. factories.
c. Demonstration and training

Mass media
1. Broadcasting: radio & TV.
2. Written word: newspapers, posters, booklets.
3. Others e.g. mosques

236
 Communication Barriers
• Social and cultural gap between the sender and the receiver
• Limited receptiveness of receiver
• Negative attitude of the sender
• Limited understanding and memory
• Insufficient emphasis by the sender (health professional)
• Contradictory messages
• Health education without identifying the “needs "of the community

237
 Health Belief Model

• The Health Belief Model (HBM) was developed in the 1950's by social
psychologists Hochbaum, Rosenstock and others.

• Who were working in the U.S. Public Health Service to explain the
failure of people participating in programs to prevent and detect disease.

• Later, the model was extended by others to study people's behavioral

responses to health-related conditions.

238
Health Belief Model

239
Health Belief Model

240
Categories of Belief

241
Health Promotion

242
 Health Promotion

Health Promotion

• Process of empowering people to make healthy lifestyle choices

and motivating them to become better self-managers.

• Examples of health promotion approaches include education

and counseling programs that promote physical activity,
improve nutrition or reduce the use of tobacco, alcohol or
drugs.
243
 Health promotion model (HPM)
by Pender. Nola J.
• The Health Promotion Model was designed by Nola J. Pender.

• It defines health as a positive dynamic state rather than simply

the absence of disease.

• Health promotion is directed at increasing a patient’s level of

well-being.

244
 Health promotion model (HPM)
by Pender. Nola J.

Definition:

The health promotion model describes the

multidimensional nature of persons as they interact within
their environment to pursue health.

245
 Health promotion model (HPM)
by Pender. Nola J.
Indivi
dual • each person has unique personal characteristics and
chara
cterist
ics
experiences that affect subsequent actions.
and
experi
ences
Behav
ior • behavior specific knowledge and affect have important
specifi
c
cognit
motivational significance.
ion
and
affect
• Health promoting behavior is the desired behavioral outcome,
Behav
ior
outco
which makes it the end point in the Health Promotion Model
mes

246
Health promotion model (HPM)
by Pender. Nola J.

247
Health promotion model (HPM)
by Pender. Nola J.

248
 Steps of Developing Health Education
Program
• Develop a purpose
• Size of the problem
• Seriousness of the problem
• Effectiveness of interventions
• Community involvement and contribution
• Support of leadership
• Model mutual respect
• Encourage people to think and act for themselves
249
 Steps of Developing Health Education
Program
• Utilize local (existing) resources and knowledge
• Incorporate elements of education and training
• Incorporate policy level changes
• Able to be evaluated
• Attention to sustainability
• Demonstrate the exchange of information and resources
• Demonstrate benefit to the entire population
• Increase capacity in the community for health status improvement
activities
• Impact on health status
250
 Teaching Strategies

• Lecture

• Drill & Practice

• Compare & Contrast

• Demonstrations

• Guided & Shared - reading, listening, viewing, thinking

251
 Teaching Strategies

• Debates • Laboratory Groups

• Jigsaw
• Role Playing
• Problem Solving
• Panels
• Tutorial Groups
• Brainstorming • Interviewing
• Peer Partner Learning • Conferencing

• Discussion • Concept Mapping

252
 Teaching Aids

• Projected: • Non-Projected
• Leaflets
• Slides (ppt)
• Newspaper/Newsletters
• Film
• Photographs
• Silent film • Poster
• Audio • Flipchart

253
254
 References:

• Glossary of terms used in Health for All series. Geneva, WHO, 1984.

• Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion. Geneva, WHO, 1986.

• Yazachew, M., & Alem, Y. (2004). Introduction to Health Education. In

Introduction to health Education. Jimma University.

255
Teaching and Learning
Unit VI

Needs Assessments

Muhammad Ziad
Lecturer INS-KMU Peshawar

Acknowledgment
Sir Iqbal and Madam Sehrish
256
 Objectives

• By the end of class students will be able to:

• 1. Define need assessment
• 2. Discuss the phases of need assessment
• 3. Compare the types of need assessment
• 4. Discuss the importance of need assessment in developing a
program
• 5. List the important element in reporting the need assessment

257
 Needs

Need:
• A need is something required for a safe, stable and healthy life while a
want is a desire, wish or aspiration.
Assessment:
• Assessment is the process of gathering and discussing information
from multiple and diverse sources.

258
 Types of Needs

Types of Need
Normative = compared to standards (poverty rate)
Perceived = What people say, e.g., expert opinion
Expressed = squeaky wheel, e.g., waiting lists,
unemployment rate, public forums, surveys
Relative = compared to similar situations, concern is
equity, ( infant mortality rate)

259
 Introduction
• Learning needs assessment process is a series of
activities conducted to identify problems or other
issues.

• The needs assessment/analysis is usually the first step

taken to cause a change.

• This is mainly because a need assessment specifically

defines the gap between the current and the desired
level of an individual.

260
 Learning Needs Assessment

In an educational setting, a learning needs

assessment helps students identify where they are in
terms of their knowledge, skills and competencies,
versus where they wish to be -- what are their
learning goals?

261
 Cont…
• Adults learn better when they can see a reason or
relevance as to why they are following a programme
of study.

• By conducting a learning needs assessment with

prospective students, the learning provider can
identify what objectives of the programmes are
needed.

• By assisting the learner to identify the gaps in his/her

own learning, the provider will be better able to
support the student.
262
 Why conduct a learning needs
Assessment?
Learning needs assessment will help:

• Identify what skills and knowledge the learners

already have.
• Highlight skills/knowledge/competencies that need
developing.
• Identify clearly what students wish to achieve
• Outline and define expectations and goals.

263
 Cont…
• Establish need and demand for the course you have in
mind.
• Determine what can realistically be achieved in the
available resources.
• Identify any obstacles or difficulties which may arise.
• Increase the sense of ownership and involvement of
the students.

264
 Cont….
• Achieve a correct fit between the provider and
student, i.e., the course matches student needs and
expectations.
• Identify the content that best suits students needs.
• Determine what is the most appropriate delivery
format -- class based, online, MIT.

265
 Cont…

• Develop a budget and cost benefit analysis.

• Establish when is the most suitable time to deliver the program and
over what time frame.

• Ascertain the most suitable evaluation mechanisms.

266
 Steps in Learning Needs
Assessment
Design

When designing the learning needs assessment, the aim is

to:
• Assess the current situation
• Define the problem - what gaps exist?
• Determine if there is a need for learning
• Evaluate existing learning
• Assess the possible learning solutions
•

267
 cont…
Conduct

• The following methods, or a combination of these

methods, can be used:
• Interviews
• Questionnaires/tests
• Observation

268
 cont…
• Analyze
• Gather the information and sort it into categories that
help you identify themes/topics that need to be
addressed.
• What topics/issues can be prioritized?
• Is there a fit between the trends emerging and the
capabilities of the learning provider?

269
 Suggestions for Reflection

• What factors does the education provider need to

consider when planning a course?

• How do you involve learners before you launch your

programme?

• How do you analyze your learner's needs?

• How might you consider involving your learners

through out the course?
270
 Cont...

Educational Goals are statements that describe the

competences, skills, and attributes that students should
possess upon completion of a course or program. They
often operate within the interacting domains of
knowledge, skills and attitudes.

271
 Cont...

Defining educational goals is a process which involves identifying

objectives, selecting attainable short-term goals and formulating a
plan for attaining these goals. Educational goals are different for
each individual.

272
 Cont...

Identifying objectives is an important first step because

they differ for everyone. First, it is important to define
what one means by “education.”

For some people, education equals a college degree, while

for others it means some kind of vocational training or
may mean simply learning a certain skill effectively,
such as how to cook or how to appreciate poetry.
273
 Cont…
Once educational objectives are determined, it becomes easier
to identify goals.

It is useful to put both long and short term goals in writing, so

that they can be referred to later.

Short-term goals, such as “bring my G.P.A. up to 3.5” or “read

a book about astronomy,” can be accomplished fairly quickly.

Long-term goals, such as “graduate with a bachelor’s degree in

computer science” or “learn to speak Italian” will take some
time.
274
 Cont….

The next step is to formulate a plan for how these goals will be
accomplished. For example, if the goal is a college degree, the plan
would include visiting various campuses and meeting with financial
aid officers to discuss tuition payment options.

275
 Cont....

As time passes, it can help to refer to the written goals

often for inspiration. Crossing off short-term goals is
an excellent way to keep oneself motivated to continue
working toward the long-term goals.

276
 Cont...
Some management academics would say that the
difference between goals and objectives is that a
goal is a description of a destination, and an objective
is a measure of the progress that is needed to get to the
destination.

In this context goals are the long term outcomes you (or
the organization) want/ need to achieve.

277
Thank you

278
Teaching and Learning
Unit VII
Writing Objectives

Muhammad Ziad
Lecturer INS-KMU Peshawar

279
Beginning With the End in Mind

280
 Outlines of the session:

At the end of this session students will be able to:

• Define learning objectives.

• Differentiate between an objective and learning outcome.

• Discuss the structure of writing an objective

• Discuss the steps of writing a learning objective.

• Write learning objectives using Bloom’s taxonomy.

281
 Definition

Definition:

• A learning objective is a statement of what students will be able to do

when they have completed instruction.

OR

• Statements that define the expected goal of a curriculum, course, lesson

or activity in terms of demonstrable skills or knowledge that will be
acquired by a student as a result of instruction. 282
 Definition…

• Also known as:

Instructional objectives
OR

Behavioral Objectives

283
 Examples…

What does a learning objective look like?

• Administer prescribed medications to patients accurately and according

to established protocols.

• Monitor vital signs and assess patient condition every four hours during
the shift.

• Implement infection control measures to prevent healthcare-associated

infections.
284
 Objective vs. Learning Outcome
Feature Objective Learning Outcome
A statement of what the instructor A statement of what the learner will
Definition intends to teach or cover in a course be able to do as a result of
or lesson. completing a course or lesson.
Focus Teacher-centered Learner-centered
Typically use instructional verbs Typically use action verbs like
Verbs
like "teach," "cover," "explain." "apply," "analyze," "create."
Measurability Often difficult to measure directly Clearly measurable and observable
Guides the selection of assessment
Role in Assessment Directly informs assessment criteria
methods
"Students will be able to apply the
"To teach students the principles of
Example principles of thermodynamics to
thermodynamics."
solve engineering problems."
285
 Structure of Writing an Objective
Structure of Writing an Objective
• A well-structured objective clearly outlines what the instructor intends to
achieve in a course or lesson. It typically follows a specific format.

The ABCD Model

A common framework for writing objectives is the ABCD model. It stands for:
• Audience: Who is the objective aimed at? (e.g., students, participants)
• Behavior: What should the learner be able to do? (action verb)
• Condition: Under what circumstances will the learner perform the behavior?
• Degree: To what extent must the learner be able to perform the behavior?
286
 Structure of Writing an Objective
• Example:
• Audience: Students will
• Behavior: be able to identify
• Condition: the main causes of the French Revolution
• Degree: with 80% accuracy.

287
 Purpose of Learning Objectives

Learning objectives are guides to:

• Selection of content

• Development of an instructional strategy.

• Development and selection of instructional materials.

• Construction of tests and other instruments for assessing and then

evaluating student learning outcomes.
288
 Steps of writing a learning objective

• We need to create objectives that accurately measure progress toward a

goal and that are meaningful to other team members or stakeholders.

• So to fulfilling the above criteria our objectives should be

•S Specific

•M Measureable

•A Achievable/Attainable

•R Relevant

•T Time Bound
289
 SMART Objectives…
Specific:
Objectives should be well-defined, and clear to other team members and to
stakeholders who also understand the program or plan.
• What/Who/How

• For example

At end of this session “Hand hygiene will be learned.” (Vague)

 INS will arrange training session for students to learn steps of hand hygiene. (Specific)

290
 SMART Objectives…
• Measurable:
Show success or impact over time. It is the number, percent or some standard
unit to express how you are doing at achieving the goal or outcome.

• Target: The desired level of performance you want to see that represents success.

• For example

• INS will offer training opportunities resulting in 3rd and 4th year students to learn steps of hand
hygiene. (Measurable)

291
 SMART Objectives…
Achievable:
Objectives should be within reach for your team or program, considering
available resources, knowledge and time.

• For example

• INS will provide training to all students and support staff in one day.

• INS will provide training to only 3rd and 4th years students.

292
 SMART Objectives…
Relevant:
Objectives should align with a corresponding goal. Consider if and how
successfully completing an objective will be relevant to achieving the goal.

For example:

• Those will be included who has not attain training before.

• The students who already gotten training will be provided advance training.

293
 SMART Objectives…
Time Bound:
Objectives should be achievable within a specific time frame that isn't so soon
as to prevent success, or so far away as to encourage procrastination.

• For example

• INS will provide training to only 3rd and 4th years students within one week.

294
 Objectives using Bloom’s taxonomy.

COGNITIVE:
• Define terms mobility, joint mobility, body alignments and body
mechanics.
• Discuss the benefits of activity and exercise.
• Apply nursing process for a altered respiratory and cardiovascular
system.
• Differentiate between medical and surgical asepsis.
295
 Objectives using Bloom’s taxonomy.

AFFECTIVE:

• Respect patients’ needs and concerns during admission of

patient in the unit.

• Follow the professional norms while giving bath to the

patient on bed.

296
 Objectives using Bloom’s taxonomy.

PYSCHOMOTOR:

• Perform health teaching at the clinical site.

• Demonstrate to measure the Blood Pressure of an adult

patient.

297
298
Teaching and Learning
Unit VIII
Lesson Plan

Muhammad Ziad
Lecturer INS-KMU Peshawar

299
 Outlines of the session:

At the end of this session students will be able to:

• Define lesson plan.

• Discuss purpose of lesson plan.

• Explain principles of lesson plan.

• Identify key components of lesson plan.

• List Gagne’s Nine Events of Instructions.

300
 Outlines of the session:

• Enlist the teaching strategies utilized in a teaching plan.

• Discuss small and large group learning strategies.

• Discuss co-operative learning

• Understand the process of preparing low cost teaching materials.

• Utilize different teaching aids knowing the advantage and disadvantage

of their creative uses.
301
 Definition

Definition:

• Lesson plan is a plan prepared by a teacher to teach a lesson in an

organized manner.

• A lesson plan is actually a plan of action.

302
 Purpose of Lesson Planning

• It demands adequate consideration of goals and objectives, the selection

of subject matter, teaching methods, teaching aids and activities, and the
planning of evaluation devices.

• It keeps the teacher on the track, ensures steady progress and a definite
outcomes of teaching and learning procedures.

• It helps the teacher to teach effectively.

303
 Purpose of Lesson Planning…

• It helps the teacher to carry out the teaching activity in a systematic and
orderly fashion.

• It ensures that the teacher does not 'dry up' or forget a vital point.

• It provides a framework to carry out the teaching at a suitable rate.

304
 Principles of Lesson Plan

The teacher should prepare a careful but flexible plan.

The teacher must have mastery of and adequate training in the topic

from which the subject matter has been selected for a certain lesson.

The teacher must be fully equipped with new methods and techniques of

teaching.
305
 Principles of Lesson Plan

The teacher must know his students thoroughly and organize the

materials

The teacher must ensure active student participation.

Since monotony is a defect, different teaching learning methods have to

be employed while teaching instead of adhering to single method.

306
 Key Components of a Lesson Plan

Profile

Objectives

Contents

Teaching Aids

Teaching strategies

Assessment/Evaluation

307
 Gagne’s Nine Events of Instructions
1. Gain attention
2. Inform learners of objectives
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning
4. Present the stimulus
5. Provide learning guidance
6. Elicit performance (practice)
7. Provide feedback
8. Assess performance
9. Enhance retention and transfer

308
Lesson Plan

309
Lesson Plan

310
 Class Activities/worksheets

•Develop a lesson plan individually on

the given topics.

311
 Teaching strategies utilized in a teaching
plan.
Teacher-Centered Strategies

Lecture: Direct transmission of information from teacher to

students.
Demonstration: Teacher models a skill or process.
Questioning: Teacher asks questions to stimulate thinking and
discussion.
Explanatory Teaching: Teacher provides clear explanations and
examples.
312
 Teaching strategies…
Student-Centered Strategies

• Discussion: Students actively participate in shared conversations.

• Group Work: Students collaborate on tasks in small groups.
• Cooperative Learning: Students work together to achieve shared goals.
• Inquiry-Based Learning: Students investigate questions and seek
answers.
• Problem-Based Learning: Students solve real-world problems.
• Project-Based Learning: Students create products or presentations to
demonstrate learning.
313
 Teaching strategies…
Technology-Integrated Strategies

• Online Learning: Delivery of content through digital platforms.

• Interactive Whiteboards: Use of technology for interactive
presentations.
• Educational Software: Use of software for teaching and learning.
• Simulations: Virtual environments for hands-on learning.

314
 Teaching strategies…
Other Strategies

• Role-Playing: Students act out different roles to understand perspectives.

• Case Studies: Analysis of real-world situations to apply knowledge.
• Games and Simulations: Use of games to make learning fun and
engaging.
• Field Trips: Experiential learning outside the classroom.

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 Small and large group learning strategies
Feature Small Group Learning Large Group Learning
Group Size Typically 3-8 students 10+ students

Deeper understanding, problem-solving, Information dissemination, motivation,

Learning Focus
collaboration, and skill development and inspiration

Teacher Role Facilitator, coach, and guide Presenter, lecturer, and moderator
Active participant, collaborator, and
Student Role Listener, note-taker, and questioner
problem-solver
Enhanced communication, critical Efficient delivery of information,
Potential Benefits thinking, and teamwork skills; increased introduction of new topics, and creation
motivation and engagement of a shared experience
Difficulty in assessing individual
Unequal participation, groupthink, and understanding, limited opportunities for
Potential Challenges
time management interaction, and potential for
disengagement
Cooperative learning, group projects,
Lectures, demonstrations, discussions,
Common Strategies case studies, role-playing, and
panels, and guest speakers 316
simulations
 Cooperative learning
Cooperative learning is an instructional method in which students work together in small
groups to accomplish a common learning goal.
It's a student-centered approach that emphasizes collaboration, interdependence, and
accountability.

Key Elements of Cooperative Learning

• Positive interdependence: Students rely on each other to succeed.
• Individual accountability: Each student is responsible for learning the material.
• Face-to-face promotive interaction: Students help and support each other.
• Interpersonal and small-group skills: Students develop social skills needed for group work.
• Group processing: Students reflect on their group's effectiveness.

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 Cooperative learning
Cooperative learning is an instructional method in which students work together in small
groups to accomplish a common learning goal.
It's a student-centered approach that emphasizes collaboration, interdependence, and
accountability.

Key Elements of Cooperative Learning

• Positive interdependence: Students rely on each other to succeed.
• Individual accountability: Each student is responsible for learning the material.
• Face-to-face promotive interaction: Students help and support each other.
• Interpersonal and small-group skills: Students develop social skills needed for group work.
• Group processing: Students reflect on their group's effectiveness.

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 Process of preparing low cost teaching
materials.
•Identify Learning Objectives: Clarify the educational goals and what you want
students to achieve.

•Select Materials: Choose inexpensive or recycled materials that align with your
objectives and teaching methods.

•Design and Create: Develop teaching aids such as charts, diagrams, models, or
manipulatives using available resources.

•Adapt Existing Materials: Modify or repurpose existing materials to suit your

specific educational needs.
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 Process of preparing low cost teaching
materials.
•Engage Creativity: Encourage creativity in designing materials that are
engaging, interactive, and relevant to students' learning.

•Test and Refine: Evaluate the effectiveness of the materials through pilot testing
and make necessary adjustments.

•Share and Collaborate: Exchange ideas and materials with colleagues to

expand resources and enhance teaching effectiveness.

•Ensure Accessibility: Ensure that materials are accessible to all students and
can be used repeatedly with minimal maintenance.
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 Advantages and disadvantages of teaching
aids
• Visual Aids
• Pros: Enhance understanding, engage attention, aid memory, represent abstract
ideas.
• Cons: Time-consuming to prepare, may not suit all learners, can be
overwhelming.
• Audio Aids
• Pros: Develop listening skills, improve pronunciation, offer authentic language
exposure.
• Cons: Requires technical skills, can be distracting, may not align with all
learning objectives.
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 Advantages and disadvantages of teaching
aids
• Audio-Visual Aids
• Pros: Combine visual and auditory elements, create engaging experiences,
suitable for demonstrations.
• Cons: Need technical expertise and equipment, can be costly, potential for
distractions.
• Tactile Aids
• Pros: Engage kinesthetic learners, enhance problem-solving, provide hands-on
experience.
• Cons: Messy, time-consuming to create, may not suit all learning objectives.

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 Advantages and disadvantages of teaching
aids
• Interactive Aids
• Pros: Engage students, allow real-time feedback, foster collaboration,
customizable.
• Cons: Require technical skills and equipment, can be costly, potential for
distractions.

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Compiled by SaMiii

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