ADMAS UNIVERSITY

GEOGRAPHY OF ETHTIOPIA AND THE HORN

Course Code: GeES 1011
Credit Hour : 3

Academic Year: 2019/20

 CHAPTER FIVE
THE CLIMATE OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
Introduction
 the country is subjected to large temporal and spatial
variations in elements of weather and climate.
 The climate of Ethiopia is mainly controlled by:
 seasonal migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
 associated atmospheric circulations
 the complex topography of the country
 Weather is the instantaneous or current state of the
atmosphere composing :
 temperature,
 atmospheric pressure,
 humidity, wind speed and direction,

 Cont’
 Impacts of the weather takes place in the
troposphere.
 Climate refers to the state of the atmosphere over
long time periods, decades and more.
 It also takes into account the extremes or
variations that may occur beyond the average
conditions.
Elements and Controls of Weather and Climate
 All weather conditions may be traced to the effect of the
Sun on the Earth.
 Elements and controls of weather and climate
Elements of weather and climate include:
 Temperature
 Precipitation and humidity
 Winds and air pressure
Controls of weather and climate include:
 Latitude/angle of the Sun
 Land and water distribution
 Winds and air pressure
 Altitude and mountain barriers
 Ocean currents
 Controls of Weather and Climate
 The climate of any particular location on earth is
determined by interacting factors such as
– latitude, elevation, nearby water,
– ocean currents, topography,
– vegetation, and prevailing winds
 Factors determining the variation of weather and
climate are called controls of weather and climate
or climatic controls
Some of the major controls are:
Latitude: is the distance of a location from the
equator.
 Latitudinal location of Ethiopia and the Horn resulted
 Cont’
 high average temperatures,
 high daily and small annual ranges of temperature,
 no significant variation in length of day and night between
summer and winter
Inclination of the Earth's Axis
 The earth’s rotation axis makes an angle of about 66 ½ °
 with the plane of its orbit around the sun, or about 23 ½ ° from
the perpendicular to the ecliptic plane.
 inclination determines the location of:
 the Tropics of Cancer, Capricorn and
 the Arctic and Antarctic Circles
 Revolution of the earth produces a change in the directness
of the sun's rays
 This causes the directness of the sun and differences in length
 Equinoxes and Solstices
 Equinox
is the instant of time when the sun strikes the plane of the
Earth's equator
 the length of day and night are equal
 the inclination of its axis from the plane of that orbit
the constant position (parallelism) of the axis
appears twice a year
 The Vernal (spring) equinox:
is the day when the point of verticality of sun’s rays
crosses the equator northwards.
the sun is exactly above the equator.
marks the beginning of spring season
March 21 marks the offset of the vernal equinox.
 Cont’
 The Autumn equinox:
It appears to happen when the visible sun moves south
across the celestial equator on 23rd of September.
marks the beginning of Autumn season
Solstice
the overhead sun appears to cross northern or
southern points relative to the celestial equator
unequal length of days and nights in the hemispheres
The summer Solstice:
the northern hemisphere has maximum tilt towards
the sun (on June 21st)
experiencing longest daylight of the year.
 Cont’
 The winter solstice(Dec. 22nd)
the day when the maximum southward inclination is
attained in the Southern Hemisphere
 Altitude
Under normal conditions there is a general decrease
in temperature with increasing elevation.
The average rate at which temperature changes per
unit of altitudinal change is known as lapse rate.
It is limited to the lower layer of the atmosphere
named as troposphere.
The normal lapse rate is 6.5°C per km rise in altitude.
 Cont’
Types of lapse rate
 Dry adiabatic lapse rate
 An adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which the
temperature of an air parcel changes in response to the
expansion or compression process associated with a
change in altitude.
 Vertical displacements of air are the major cause
 If the upward movement of air does not produce
condensation, then the energy expended by expansion
will cause the temperature of the mass to fall at the
constant dry adiabatic lapse rate.
 The rate of heating or cooling is about 10°C for every
1000 m of change in elevation.
 rate applies only to unsaturated air, and thus it is called
 Cont’
 Wet Adiabatic laps rate
 Rising and saturated or precipitating air cools at a slower rate
than air that is unsaturated.
 This process is called wet adiabatic temperature change .
 The rate of cooling of wet air is approximately 5ºc per 1000
meters ascend.
 Environmental lapse rate or Atmospheric lapse late
 refers to the actual, observed change of temperature with
altitude
 The decrease in temperature upward from the earth's
surface normally prevails throughout the lower atmosphere
called troposphere.
 The principal exception to the rule is the cause of
temperature inversions.
 Spatiotemporal Patterns and Distribution of
Temperature and Rainfall in Ethiopia
Spatiotemporal Distribution of Temperature
Elements that determine temperature include:
 Altitude
 Latitude,
 humidity and winds
The spatial distribution of temperature in Ethiopia is
primarily determined by altitude and latitude.
The tropical temperature is limited to peripheral area of the
country.
Temperature decreases towards the interior highlands.
Mean annual temperature varies from over 30 °C in the
tropical lowlands to less than 10°c at very high altitudes.
Lowest and highest mean annual temperatures are recorded
in Bale mountain and Afar depression, respectively
 Cont’
lowlands of north-western, western and south-
eastern Ethiopian experiences mean maximum
temperatures of more than 30°C.
Temperature versus Altitude
Altitude (meter) Mean annual Temp Description Local Equivalent
(°C)

3,300 and above 10 or less Cool Wurch

2,300 - 3,300 10 – 15 Cool Temperate Dega

1,500 - 2,300 15-20 Temperate Woina Dega

500 - 1,500 20 – 25 Warm Temperate Kola

below 500 25 and above Hot Bereha

Source: MoA, 2000

 Cont’
The temporal distribution of Ethiopian temperature
is characterized by extremes.
 It is determined latitude and cloud cover
 some parts of the country enjoy a temperate climate.
In the tropics, the daily range of temperature is higher
and the annual range is small,
whereas the reverse is true in the temperate latitudes.
In Ethiopia, as in all places in the tropics,
 the air is frost free and
 changes in solar angles are small making intense solar
radiation.
Ethiopia’s daily temperatures:
• are more extreme than its annual average temperature
 Cont’
• >37°C over the lowlands in northeast and southeast
• low of about 10°C-15°C over the northwestern and southeastern
highlands
 In the case of monthly averages temperature:
variation is minimal
the annual range of temperature is small.
holds true in both the highlands and lowlands.
highest temperatures are recorded from March to June
low temperatures are recorded from November to February
 Slight temperature increase in summer in Ethiopia:
 Southern part, highest records in autumn and spring
 Northern part has highest records in summer season
 Unlike other parts, during Summer, the southern and
southwestern highlands experience reduced temperature. This
is due to directness of the sun.
 Direction of rain bearing winds (leeward or windward side) also
determines the temperature variations in mountainous regions.
 Spatiotemporal Distribution of Rainfall
 Rainfall system in Ethiopia is characterized by:
 complexities.
 spatial and temporal variability.
o position of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITC),
o pressure cells, and
o Trade Winds.
 Rainfall in Ethiopia is greatly influenced by the position of
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
o convergence of Northeast Trade winds and the Equatorial
Westerlies
o low-pressure zone.
o Its inter-annual oscillation causes a variation in the Wind flow
patterns over Ethiopia and the Horn.
o Following the position of the overhead sun, the ITCZ shifts north
 Seasonal or Temporal Variabilities
Summer (June, July, August)
 majority of Ethiopian regions, except lowlands in Afar
and Southeast, receive rainfall
 the sun overheads north of the equator
 ITCZ develops around Sahara Desert (around Tropic of
Cancer)
 Winds blow from high pressure to low pressure cell
 High pressure cells develop on the Atlantic and Indian
Oceans around the tropic of Capricorn
 Ethiopia and the Horn come under the influence of the
Equatorial Westerlies (Guinea monsoon) and Easterlies
(moist bearing winds).
 the Guinea monsoon and the South easterly winds are
 Cont’
Autumn (September, October and November)
 Autumn is the season of the year between summer and
winter
 ITCZ shifts towards the equator weakening the equatorial
westerlies
 the south easterlies from Indian Ocean showers the
lowlands in southeastern part of Ethiopia.
Winter (December, January and February)
 the overhead sun is far south of equator
 northeasterly winds originating from the landmass of
Asia dominantly prevail Ethiopian landmass.
 It crosses the Red Sea carry very little moisture and
 supplies rain only to the Afar lowlands and the Red Sea
 Cont’
Spring (March, April and May)
o the noonday sun is shining directly on the equator
o the effect of the northeast trade wind is very much
reduced.
o the southeasterlies from the Indian Ocean provide
rain to the highlands of Somalia and,
o to the central and southeastern lowlands and
highlands of Ethiopia.
 Rainfall Regions of Ethiopia
Summer rainfall region
 comprises almost all parts of the country, except the
southeastern and northeastern lowlands.
 region is divided in to dry and wet summer rainfall regions.
 the wet corresponds to the area having rainfall of 1,000 mm
or more
 The High altitudes and the windward side experience such
rainfall amount.
All year-round rainfall region
 many rainy days than any part of the country
 It is a rainfall region in the southwestern part of the country.
 due to the prepotency of moist air currents of equatorial
Westerlies called the Guinea Monsoons.
 Cont’
 duration and amount of rainfall decreases as we move
from southwest to north and eastwards.
 In summer months, it gains highest rainfall whereas
the winter months receive the reduced amount
 The average rainfall varies from 1,400 to over 2,200
mm/year.
Autumn and Spring rainfall regions
 comprises areas receiving rain following the influence
of southeasterly winds.
 South eastern lowlands receive rains during autumn
and spring seasons
 In this times, both the north easterlies and equatorial
westerlies are weak.
 Cont’
 About 60%of the rain is in autumn and 40 % in spring
 The average rainfall varies from less than 500 to 1,000
mm.
Winter rainfall region
 receives rain from the northeasterly winds.
 the Red sea escarpments and
 some parts of the Afar region receive their main rain.
 Agro-ecological Zones of Ethiopia
 Ethiopia possesses diverse agro-climatic zones.
 This is due to:
• diversified altitude and climatic conditions
 Five major climatic zones namely:
 Bereha, Kolla, Woina Dega,
 Dega and Wurch.
The Wurch Zone
 an area having altitude > 3,200 m above sea level
 mean annual temperature of less than 10°C
 include mountain systems of Ras Dashen, Guna,
Megezez in North Shoa, Batu, Choke, Abune Yoseph
etc.
 Cont’
Dega Zone
 a zone of highlands having relatively higher temperature and
lower altitude compared to the wurch Zones.
 is long inhabited and has dense human settlement
 has reliable rainfall for agriculture and
 absence of vector-borne diseases
Weyna Dega Zone
 has warmer temperature and moderate rainfall.
 the 2nd largest zone covering more than 26% of the landmass
 highly suitable for majority of crops grown in Ethiopia
 the zone includes most of the agricultural land
 has also two growing seasons
Kolla Zone
 Include peripheries in south, southeast, west and
 Cont’
 Includes the hot lowlands
 mean annual rainfall is erratic
 it can be as high as 1500 mm in the wet western lowlands of
Gambella.
 Rainfall is highly variable from year to year
 The region is boundary between the hot arid (Bereha) and the
humid climates (Woina Dega).
 Bereha Zone
 the hot arid climate of the desert lowlands
 Strong wind, high temperature, low relative humidity, and little
cloud cover usually characterize Bereha
 Evapotranspiration is always in excess of rainfall
 Djibouti, majority of Somalia, and coastal areas of Eritrea are
categorized under Kolla and Bereha zones.
 Agro Ecological Zones of Ethiopia
Zones Altitude (m) Mean Length of Mean
annual growing annual
rainfall periods temperature Areal in
(mm) (days) (0C) %tage

Wurch (cold >3,200 900-2,200 211–365 Below 10 0.98

to moist)
Dega (cool to 2,300 - 3,200 900-1,200 121–210 ≥11.5–17.5 9.94
humid)
Weyna Dega 1,500 - 2300 800-1,200 91–120 >17.5 – 20.0 26.75
(cool to sub-
humid)
Kola (Warm 500 - 1,500 200-800 46–90 >20.0 – 27.5 52.94
semiarid)

Berha (Hot <500 Below 200 0–45 >27.5 9.39

arid)
Climate Change/Global Warming: Causes, Consequences and
Response Mechanisms
 Climate change refers to:
 a change in the state of the climate
 any change in climate over time, due to either natural variability
or human activities.
Current Trends of Climate in Ethiopia
 Ethiopian climate experiences extremes such as drought, flood
etc.
 Ethiopia ranked 5th out of 184 countries in terms of its risk of
drought.
 12 extreme drought events were recorded between 1900 and
2010.
 seven of the drought events occurred since 1980
 majority of these resulted in famines
 severe drought of 2015-2016 was exacerbated by the strongest
 Cont’

Trends in Temperature Variability

 Ethiopia has experienced climatic changes
 Mean annual temperature has shown 0.2°C to 0.28°C
rise per decade over the last 40-50 years.
 A rise in average temperature of about 1.3°C has been
observed between 1960 and 2006.
 The rise has spatial and temporal variation
 Higher rise was noted in drier areas in NE and SE part
of the country
 variability is higher in July-September
 the country’s minimum temperature has increased
with 0.37°C to 0.4°C per decade.
 Cont’
Trends in Rainfall Variability
Rainfall variability is increasing (and predictability is
decreasing) in many parts of the country.
In some regions, total average rainfall is showing
decline
Parts of S, SW and SE regions receiving Spring and
Summer rainfall have shown decline by 15-20%
between 1975 and 2010.
Changes in temperature and rainfall increase the
frequency and severity of extreme events
Major floods have been a common occurrence
Warming has exacerbated droughts, and
desertification in the lowlands
 Causes of Climate Change
Natural Causes: Caused due to:
variations in the energy budget,
the position of Earth relative to Sun,
the position of continents relative to the equator, and
 even whether the continents are together or apart
Volcanic eruption
Anthropogenic Causes
 increasing amount of green house gases
o carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide
decomposition of wastes in landfills,
agriculture, ruminant digestion and manure management,
synthetic compounds manufacturing, clearing of land for
agriculture, industrial activities
 Consequences of Climate Change
 The impact of climate change is higher in low
income countries
 Some of the consequences of the changing
climate include:
 Impacts on human health
 Impact on water resources
 Impact on Agriculture
 Impact on Ecosystem
 Climate Response Mechanisms
Mitigation and its Strategies
Mitigation measures that are taken to reduce and
control greenhouse gas emissions changing the climate.
The goal is to avoid significant human interference with
the climate system
The measures include:
 Practice Energy efficiency
 Increase the use of renewable energy such as solar
 Efficient means of transport implementation: electric public
transport, bicycle, shared cars, etc.
Adaptation and its Strategies
adjusted to and coped with changes in climate and
extremes with varying degrees of success
 Cont’
 adapting to life in a changing climate
 The goal is to reduce our vulnerability to the harmful effects of
climate change
 It also encompasses making the most of any potential beneficial
opportunities associated with climate change
 Some of the major adaptation strategies include:
 building flood defences,
 plan for heat waves and higher temperatures,
 installing water-permeable pavements to better deal with floods and
storm water
 improve water storage and use are some of measures taken by cities
and towns.
 landscape restoration and reforestation,
 flexible and diverse cultivation to be prepared for natural
catastrophes
 preventive and precautionary measures (evacuation plans, health
 CHAPTER SIX
SOILS, NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES
OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
Ethiopian Soils: Types, Degradation and
Conservation
Soil is a delicate but highly varied composition of
mineral particles, organic matter and living organisms
in dynamic equilibrium
It consists of weathered mineral materials (45%),
organic matter (5%), air (20-30%) and water (20-
30%).
The formation of a particular type of soil depends on:
 parent material,
 climate, topography,
 living organism and time
 Cont’

Weathering disintegrates the inorganic substances

(rocks) of soils
by the action of rainwater, extremes of temperature,
and biological activity
There are three types of weathering involving in soil
formation. These are:
 Mechanical (physical) weathering
Physical disintegration causes decrease in size
without appreciably altering composition. This
include
 differential stresses due to heating and cooling or expansion
 Abrasion (erosion by friction) due to water containing
sediment
 wind carrying debris
 Cont’
Biological weathering
involves the weakening and subsequent disintegration
of rock by plants, animals and microbes
Chemical weathering
involves the modification of the chemical and
mineralogical composition of the weathered material.
processes are hydrolysis, oxidation, reduction,
hydration, carbonation, and solution.
Soils have two basic properties:
Physical properties: are influenced by composition and
proportion of major soil components.
 texture, structure, porosity etc. are categorized under
 Cont’
affect air and water movement in the soil, and thus the
soils ability to function
Chemical Properties: is the interaction of various
chemical constituents that takes place among soil
particles and in the water retained by soil.
like availability of minerals, electrical conductivity,
soil pH, etc.
affect soil biological activity and indirectly the
nutrient dynamics.
 Major Soil Types in Ethiopia
 Soils of Ethiopia are basically derived from:
 crystalline, volcanic and
 Mesozoic sedimentary rocks.
 Soil divisions in the country are based on the geologic
structure.
 FAO has identified 18 soil associations in Ethiopia
 Out of the major soils, 11 soil associations cover about
87.4 % of the land area
 six major groups of soils in Ethiopia are discussed
under the following points:
 Environmental condition
 Characteristic
 Agricultural suitability
 Cont’
Nitosols and Acrisols
Nitosols
 develop on gently sloping ground
 parent materials include trap series volcanics, volcanic ash,
and even metamorphic rocks.
 strongly weathered soils
 far more productive than most other tropical soils
 basically associated with highlands with high rainfall
 they were, probably, formed on forest covered areas
originally.
 considerable soil leached
 poor in soluble minerals like potassium, calcium etc
 rich in non-soluble minerals like iron and aluminum.
 reddish-brown color
 Cont’
 high concentration of iron (ferric) oxides due to leaching.
 now widely found on cultivated areas and on mountain
grasslands.
 dominantly found in western highlands (Wellega),
southwestern highlands (Kaffa, Illuababora), Southern
highlands, Central highlands, and Eastern highlands.
Acrisols
 the most inherently infertile soils of the tropics
 degraded chemically and organically very quickly when
utilized.
 low resilience to degradation and moderate sensitivity to
yield decline.
 characterized by low productive capacity
 found along with nitosols mostly in some pockets of
southwestern highlands
 Cont’
 Vertisols
 heavy clay soils
 high proportion of swelling clays when wet, and cracks
when dry.
 has very high natural chemical fertility
 develop on volcanic plateau basalt, trachyte and pyroclastic
materials, sedimentary rocks, colluvial slopes and alluvial
plains
 are also soils of highlands and moderate climates.
 commonly found in parts of Northwestern, Central and
Southeastern highlands
Lithosols, Cambisols and Regosol
 are mostly found in rugged topography and steep slopes
 is little evidence of pedogenic processes (soil forming
 Cont’
 young, shallow and coarse textured
 have low water holding capacity
 are found in areas of low rainfall
 areas covered by these soils have limited agricultural use.
 left under the natural plant cover and used for grazing.
 are found in different parts of rugged and steep slopes of
Central Highlands and
 on the Rift Valley Escarpments and highlands in of western
Hararghe
 Regosol and Lithosols are also found in the Danakil and
eastern Ogaden.
 Xerosols, Yermosols and Solanchaks
 are soils of desert or dry steppe soils majorly available in
arid and semiarid areas
 Cont’
 desert soils are characterized by high salt content and low
organic content
 The area has the scanty vegetation
 have poor humus content and nitrogen,
 are rich in phosphorus and potash and
 can be very fertile if irrigated.
 Xerosols are soils of the deserts, has low organic content
 are extremely subjected to wind erosion and concentration
of soluble salts
 Yermosols are even drier and more problematic than
Xerosols.
 Solanchaks are saline soils which develop in areas of high
evaporation and capillary action.
 Badly managed irrigation schemes may turn soils into
solonchaks.
 Cont’
 Xerosols are found in Ogaden and northeastern escarpments
 Yermosols and Solonchaks cover the Ogaden and Afar plains
 Solonchaks are majorly located in salty plains of Afar.

Fluvisols
 develop on flat or nearly flat ground, on recent alluvial
deposits
 associated with fluvial (river), marine (sea) and lacustine
(lake) deposits
 formed due to deposition of eroded materials from
highlands
 deposition takes place in depressions, lower valleys and
lowlands
 Cont’
 like Omo, Awash, Abay and the plains of Akobo and
Baro Rivers are home for fluvivsols
 Lakes region (main Ethiopian rift) is also characterized
by fluvisols.
 Fluvisols are highly variable, but much prized for
intensive agriculture, b/s:
they develop on flat ground, deposition sites
they are associated with rivers and ground water
they are fertile and their fertility is always renewed
Luvisols
 develop mainly in areas where pronounced wet and dry
seasons occur in alternation
 leaching is not very high
 Cont’
 have good chemical nutrients
 they are among the best agricultural soils in the
tropics and they are intensively cultivated
 are found on steep slopes (stony) and on flat areas
(waterlogged)
 they are avoided and left for grazing
 places with luvisols include Lake Tana area, parts of
Northern, Central and Eastern Highlands and
Southern lowlands.
 Soil Degradation
• Soil degradation is defined as a change in any or all of
soil status resulting in a diminished capacity of the
ecosystem to provide goods and services.
• deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological
properties of soil.
• It undermines the productive capacity of an ecosystem
• it affects global climate through alterations in water and
energy balances and disruptions in cycles of carbon,
nitrogen, sulfur, and other elements
• There are three major types of soil degradation
Physical Degradation: refers to the deterioration of
the physical properties of soil
 Cont’
 Compaction: densification of soil is caused by the
elimination or reduction of structural pores.
• are susceptible to accelerated runoff and erosion
 Soil erosion: is a three-phase process consisting of the
detachment of individual soil particles, transportation
and deposition
 In Ethiopia, an estimated average of 42 tons per hectare
of soils is eroded annually.
Biological Degradation
 Reduction in soil organic matter content,
 decline in biomass carbon, and
 decrease in activity and
 diversity of soil fauna are ramifications of biological
 Cont’
 more severe in the tropics
 caused by indiscriminate and excessive use of chemicals
and soil pollutants.
Chemical Degradation
Nutrient depletion is a major cause of chemical
degradation
excessive leaching of cat-ions in soils with low-activity
clays causes a decline in soil pH and a reduction in base
saturation
caused by the build up of some toxic chemicals and an
elemental imbalance that is injurious to plant growth.
Causes of soil degradation
 Soil degradation may result from natural and human-
 Cont’
 Topographic and climatic factors such as:
• steep slopes, frequent floods and tornadoes, storms and
• high-velocity wind, high-intensity rains and
• drought in dry regions are among the natural causes.
 Anthropogenic causes include:
• Deforestation and overexploitation of vegetation,
• overgrazing, indiscriminate use of agrochemicals and
• lack of soil conservation practices, and
• over extraction of ground water
Soil Erosion Control Measures
The aim of soil conservation is to reduce erosion to a
level at which the maximum sustainable level of
agricultural production, grazing or recreational activity
 Cont’
 Since erosion is a natural process, it cannot be
prevented.
 two major soil erosion control mechanisms
Biological Control measures
 include vegetative strips, plantation, and reforestation.
 prevent splash erosion, reduces the velocity of surface
runoff, increases surface roughness
 reduces runoff and increases infiltration
Physical control measures
 are used to control the movement of water and wind
over the soil surface
 includes terracing, check dams, gabion, trenches,
contour ploughing, soil bunds etc.
 Natural Vegetation of Ethiopia
Introduction
Natural vegetation refers to a plant cover that
develops with little or no human interference.
To a large extent, its spatial distribution is affected by
temperature and precipitation.
Benefits of Natural vegetation:
 provide shelter, food,
 source of fuel, pasture and grazing, raw material for
industries,
 source of timber and non-timber products,
 moderating effect on local climate,
 home of wild life,
 medicinal values,
 Cont’
Ethiopia's natural vegetation are to a large extent
determined by elevation (and temperature) and
rainfal
Ethiopia possesses an estimated number of 6000
species of higher plants of which 10% are endemic.
Major Natural Vegetation Types of Ethiopia
Afro-alpine and sub-afro alpine Region
 Forest Region
Woodland Savannah Region
Steppe Region
Semi-desert Region
 Afro-alpine and sub-afro alpine Region
 Ethiopia has the largest extent of Afro-alpine and sub afro-
alpine habitats in Africa
 also known as high mountain vegetation is similar to the Alpine
vegetation in temperate regions.
 an elevation ranging between 3,200 and 4,620 m.s.l.
 covers nearly 1.3% of the total landmass of Ethiopia.
The Afro-alpine region
 is found at very high altitudes (4,000 – 4,620 m).
 ecosystems is controlled by latitude and altitude.
 annul precipitation which ranges between 800 and 1,500 mm,
is mostly in the form of sleet or snow.
 Temperature records of 0°C and below are widely experienced
 Soils in this ecosystem are mostly shallow and eroded
 The Bale and Semein mountains are typical examples
 Cont’
Sub-afro-alpine region
 found at a lower elevation, roughly between 3,300 and
4,000 meters
 the plants in this region are adapted to somewhat less
extreme environment than the Afro-alpine.
 dominated by woodland, often degraded to scrub
stages and also wet grasslands.
 Erica arborea (Asta) is the dominant species
 Vegetation in the Afro-alpine region consists of:
• tussock grasslands,
• scrub, scattered mosses and
• lichens
 Forest Region
 Forest is a complex ecosystem consisting
predominantly of trees that shield earth and support
numerous life forms.
 It may vary in terms of species composition, structure
and physiognomy
 climate, soil types, topography and elevation determine
the types of forests.
 wide variations in rainfall and altitude result in two
broad classification of forests: Highlands and Lowland
forests.
Highland forests include:
 Hagenia Abyssinia (Kosso), Juniper procera (tid), Arundinaria
Alpina(kerkha), Podocarpus falcatus (zigba), Aningeria adolfi-
friedericii (keraro) and Olea africana (Weyra)
 Cont’
 Low Land Forest include:
• Baphia, Gallery (Riverine) Forests
• found in some places such as the banks of Awash,
Wabishebelle, Ghenale etc
• Dominant species include Ficus sur (sholla) and different
kinds of acacia trees.
 Woodland Savannah Region
 found in areas of wide altitudinal ranges (250 to 2,300
m)
 mean annual rainfall ranges between 200 and 1,400 mm
 the large part of this region is found at a lower elevation
and in a drier environment
 plants are known for their xeromorphic characteristics
like shading of leaves during the dry season
 Cont
 Vegetation types are shrublands and bushlands
 can be broadly classified into three divisions:
• Juniper procera (tid) is dominant species for both the Junipers
Forests and Junipers Woodlands.
– Altitude = 1,350-2,200
– MeanAnnual RF (mm) =500-900
– Growing season(No. of months) =4-8
• Acacia woodlands are dominated by both trees and shrubs, which
belong to the same genus 'Acacia'. E.g. Acacia etbaica(grar),Acacia
mellifera (Konter).
– Altitude = 250-2,300
– MeanAnnual RF (mm) =200-1,000
– Growing season(No. of months) =1-9
• Mixed deciduous woodlands: shed their leaves during the dry
season.
– Altitude = 300-1,300
– MeanAnnual RF (mm) =800-1.400
 Steppe and Semi Desert Regions
 arid and semiarid parts of the country
 the temperature is very high and the rainfall very low
the Steppe Vegetation:
 found at elevations of 100 to 1,400 m a. s. l.
 gets a mean annual rainfall of 100 to 550 mm
 growing period lasts up to 2 months
the semi-deserts Vegetation
 at 130 m b. s. l. to 600 m a. s. l.
 gets a mean annual rainfall of 50 to 300 mm
 Growing period lasts up to a maximum of one month
o soils in both regions are generally alkaline and saline
o xerophytic (i.e. drought-resisting plants) are the dominant
vegetations
o Where there are moist soils, rich vegetation of acacia and palm
 Natural vegetation Degradation
Ethiopia's forest resources have been disappearing at
an alarming rate
A century ago, forests covered about 40% of the total
land area
Major causes for the gradual disappearance of the
natural vegetation in Ethiopia are:
 Clearing of forests for cultivation
 Timber exploitation practices
 Charcoal burning and cutting for fuel
 Extensions of coffee and tea production areas
 Overgrazing
 Expansion of settlements both rural and urban, and clearing
for construction.
 Natural Vegetation Conservation
Conservation of biodiversity is:
 protection and management of biodiversity so as to
maintain at least its current status and derive sustainable
benefits for the present and future generation.
There are three main approaches of biodiversity
conservation:
 Protection: through designation and management of some
form of protected area- include sanctuaries, national parks,
and community conservation areas.
 Sustainable forest management: involving sustainable
harvesting of forest products to provide a source of financial
income
 Restoration or rehabilitation: is the process of assisting
the recovery of a forest ecosystem that has been degraded,
 Wild Life/wild animals in Ethiopia
Introduction
Ethiopia possess unique and characteristic fauna with
a high level of endemicity
This is due to existence of wide range of ecosystems
endowed Ethiopia
Ethiopia has about
 860 avian species (16 endemic species and two endemic
genera),
 279 species of mammals (31 endemic species and six
endemic genera),
 201 species of reptiles (14 endemic species),
 23 species of amphibians (23 endemic species), and
 150 freshwater fish (6 endemic species).
 Cont’
A total of 279 mammalian species of which 31 are
endemic
The endemics require urgent conservation action i.e.
 Walia Ibex (Capra walie),
 Gelada Baboon (Theropithecus gelada),
 Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni),
 Ethiopian Wolf (Canis simensis),
 Starck‟s Hare (Lepus starcki).
Main wild life concentrations in the country occur in the
southern and western parts
The wild animals in Ethiopia can be classified into five
major groups:
Common wild animals:those animals that are found in
many parts of the country (e.g. hyenas, jackals)
 Cont’
Game (lowland) animal: which include many herbivores
like giraffes, wild asses, zebras etc. and carnivores like lions,
leopards, and cheetahs
Tree animals or arboreals :which include monkeys,
baboons
 A variety of birds in the Rift Valley lakes
Rare animals (gelada baboon and Semien fox) scattered in
highlands; walia- ibex in the Semien Massifs, Nyala in the Arsi Bale
massifs).
Wild animals can be used for:
 scientific and educational researches
 physical and mental recreation (aesthetic value)
 promotion of tourism (economic value)
 its potential for domestication
 Wildlife Conservation
To prevent the destruction of wildlife a total area of
nearly 100,000square km of
 national parks, sanctuaries,
 community conservation areas,
 botanical gardens, wildlife reserves etc,
In Ethiopia there are:
 21 major national parks (see Table 6.2),
 2 major wildlife sanctuaries,
 3 wildlife reserves,
 6 community conservation areas,
 2 wildlife rescue centres,
 22 controlled hunting areas,
 2 botanical gardens, and 3 biosphere reserves
 Cont’
Ethiopia have different turnovers of animals
 include buffaloes, zebras, lions, elephants, ostriches,
giraffes, oryx, African wild asses, etc.
Some of the national parks are unique in their wild
animals they have.
 Abiyatta-Shalla lakes National Park is predominantly bird
sanctuary. Important bird species include the flamingos and
pelicans.
 Omo, Mago, and Gambela National Parks have
hippopotamus and crocodiles in rivers and lakes
 Semien and Bale Mountains National Parks have rare
animals like Walia ibex, Semien fox, gelada baboon and
Nyala.
Challenges of wildlife conservation in Ethiopia
 Conservation of Ethiopia’s biodiversity and ecosystems is vital:
 to ensure sustainable development,
 to mitigate and adapt to the effects of climate change and
 to prevent the collapse of life-supporting ecosystem services.
 Here are some of the major challenges that Ethiopian
protected areas are facing:
 Limited awareness on the importance of wild life
 Expansion of human settlement in protected areas.
 Conflict over resource
 Overgrazing (fodder and wood)
 Illegal wildlife trade
 Excessive hunting
 Tourism and recreational pressure
 Mining and construction material extraction
 Forest fire
 Questions
1. Discuss the major soil types of Ethiopia.
2. What are the three types of soil degradation?
3. What are the mechanisms of controlling soil
erosion?
4. Discuss the five groups of natural vegetation in
Ethiopia?
5. Discuss the vegetation and wildlife degradation?
6. What are protected areas? Identify the major
protected areas in Ethiopia