Introduction to Physiology

Prepared by: Ma. Janedy D.

Navasero, PTRP
Human Physiology
Explains the specific characteristics and
mechanisms of the human body that make
it a living being
Branch of biology dealing with the functions
and activities of living organisms and their
parts including all physical and chemical
processes
Anatomy vs. Physiology
Anatomy – study of the structure and
relationship between body parts
Physiology – study of the function of the body
parts and the body as a whole
Homeostasis and Body Fluids
Homeostasis
Homeo- sameness; stasis- standing
still
Condition of the equilibrium in the
body in the body’s internal
environment
Due to the constant interaction of the
body’s many regulatory processes
ECF and ICF
Intracellular fluid (ICF)
Fluid within the cells
Contains large amounts of potassium,
magnesium, and phosphate ions
Extracellular fluid (ECF)
Fluid outside body cells
Contains large amounts of sodium, chloride,
and bicarbonate ions
ECF
 Interstitial fluid
ECF that fills the narrow spaces between cells of tissues
Often called the body’s internal environment
 Blood plasma
Within blood vessels
 Lymph
Within lymphatic vessels
 Cerebrospinal fluid
In and around the brain and the spinal cord
 Synovial fluid
Joints
 Aqueous humor
eyes
Levels of Structural
Organization
Feedback system
Receptor
Body structure that monitors changes in a
controlled condition and sends input to the
control center
Control center
Evaluates the input it receives from the
receptors
Sends output after evaluation
Effector
Receives output from the control center
Produces the response or effect that changes
the controlled condition
Negative Feedback System

Reverses a
change in a
controlled
condition
BP regulation
Positive Feedback System
 Strengthen or
reinforce a
change in one of
the body’s
controlled
condition
 Normal childbirth
Cells
Basic living unit of the body
The entire body contains ~100 trillion cells
2 major parts
Nucleus
Separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear
membrane
Cytoplasm
Separated from the surrounding fluids by cell
membrane also called as plasma membrane
Protoplasm
• Different substances that make up the cell
1. Water
 Principal fluid medium of the cell
 70-85%

2. Ions
 Provide inorganic chemicals for cellular
reactions
3. Proteins
 2nd most abundant substance in cells (10-20%)
 Structural proteins: provide the “cytoskeletons”
 Functional proteins: mainly the enzymes of the cell
4. Lipids
 group of naturally occurring molecules that
include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble
vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K),
monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides,
phospholipids, and others.
5. Carbohydrates
 play a major role in nutrition of the cell
Parts of a cell
1. Plasma membrane
forms the cell’s flexible outer surface,
separating the cell’s internal environment
(inside the cell) from the external
environment (outside the cell)
Selective barrier
Lipid bilayer
 Occurs because the lipids are amphiphatic (both
polar and nonpolar parts)
 Polar: phosphate-containing “head” which is
hydrophilic
 Nonpolar: two long fatty acid “tails” which are
hydrophobic
The lipid layer in the middle of the
membrane is impermeable to the usual
water-soluble substances, such as ions,
glucose, and urea. Conversely, fat-
soluble substances, such as oxygen,
carbon dioxide, and alcohol, can
penetrate this portion of the membrane
with ease.
Cell Membrane Proteins
1. Integral proteins
 Protrude all the way through the membrane
 Provide structural channels through
which water molecules and water-soluble
substances can pass through
 Other act as carrier proteins for
transporting substances that otherwise
could not penetrate the lipid bilayer
2. Peripheral proteins
 Often attached to integral proteins
 Controllers of transport of substances
through the cell membrane
Types of Transport: Passive
Processes
1. Diffusion
 Diffus- spreading
Random mixing of particles in a solution
occurs because of the particles’ kinetic
energy
Solute vs solvent
Factors that affect diffusion
1. Steepness of the concentration gradient
The greater the difference in concentration between the
two sides of the membrane, the higher the rate of
diffusion
2. Temperature
 The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of
diffusion
3. Mass of the diffusing substances
 The larger the mass of the diffusing particle, the slower
the diffusion rate.
4. Surface area
The larger the membrane surface area available for
diffusion, the faster the diffusion rate
5. Diffusion distance
The greater the distance over which diffusion must occur,
the longer it takes.
3 Types of Passive Processes
1. Simple Diffusion
substances move freely through the lipid
bilayer of the plasma membranes of cells
without the help of membrane transport
proteins
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen gases;
fatty acids; steroids; and fat-soluble vitamins
(A, D, E, and K)
2. Facilitated Diffusion
integral membrane protein assists a specific
substance across the membrane
Types of Facilitated Diffusion
a) Channel-Mediated Facilitated Diffusion
 A channel is said to be gated when part of the
channel protein acts as a “plug” or “gate,” changing
shape in one way to open the pore and in another
way to close it
b) Carrier-Mediated Facilitated Diffusion
 solute binds to a specific carrier on one side of the
membrane and is released on the other side after
the carrier undergoes a change in shape
 include glucose, fructose, galactose
3 Types of Passive Processes
3. Osmosis
 Passive movement of water molecules
across a selectively permeable membrane
from an area of higher water concentration
to an area of lower water concentration
 Passes through the plasma membrane in
two ways:
by moving through the lipid bilayer via simple
diffusion
by moving through aquaporins, integral
membrane proteins that function as water
channels
Active Processes
Movement of substances against a
concentration gradient; requires cellular
energy in the form of ATP.
2 sources of energy:
Energy obtained from hydrolysis of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the source in
primary active transport
energy stored in an ionic concentration
gradient is the source in secondary active
transport
I. Active Transport
1. Primary Active Transport
Active process in which a substance moves
across the membrane, against its concentration
gradient by pumps (carriers) that use energy
supplied by hydrolysis of ATP
Substances transported
Na, K, Ca2, H, I, Cl
Sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+ ATPase)
I. Active Transport
2. Secondary Active Transport
Coupled active transport of two substances
across the membrane using energy supplied
by a Na+
Symporters: transporters that move
substances in the same direction
Antiporters: move substances in the opposite
direction across the membrane
II. Transport in Vesicles
1. Endocytosis
 Movement of substances into a cell in
vesicles
a) Receptor-mediated Endocytosis
 Ligand-receptor complexes trigger vesicle
containing ligands
b) Phagocytosis
 “Cell eating”, movement of a solid particle into a
cell to form a phagosome
c) Bulk-phase endocytosis/Pinocytosis
 “Cell drinking”, movement of extracellular fluid
into a cell to form a vesicle
2. Exocytosis
 Movement of substances out of a cell in
secretory vesicle that fuse with the plasma
membrane and release their contents into
the extracellular fluid
3. Transcytosis
 Movement of a substance through a cell as
a result of endocytosis on one side and
exocytosis on the other side
Phagocyto
sis Pinocytosis
CYTOPLASM:
ORGANELLES
I. Cytoskeleton
Network of protein filaments that extends
throughout the cytosol
1. Microfilaments
 Thinnest elements
 Composed of the protein actin
 Help generate movement and provide
mechanical support
 Extensions are called microvilli which
increases the surface area of the cell
2. Intermediate Filaments
 Found in parts of the cell subject to
mechanical stress
 Help stabilize the position of organelles
such as the nucleus
 Help attach cells to one another

3. Microtubules
 Largest
 Composed mainly of the protein tubulin
 Help determine cell shape
II. Centrosome
 Located near the nucleus
 2 components
 Centrioles: cylindrical structures composed of 9
clusters of microtubules arranged in a circular
pattern
 Pericentriolar material: surround the centrioles

III. Cilia
• Hairlike projections that extend from the surface of
the cell
• Causes the steady movement of fluid along the
cell’s surface
IV. Flagella
 Longer than cilia
 Usually move an entire cell
 Generates forward motion along its axis by
rapidly wiggling in a wavelike pattern
V. Ribosome
Composed of two subunits containing
ribosomal RNA and proteins; may be free in
cytosol or attached to rough ER
For protein synthesis

VI. Endoplasmic Reticulum

Membranous network of flattened sacs or
tubules
Rough ER – with ribosomes;
 synthesizes glycoproteins and phospholipids that are
transferred to cellular organelles (secreted during
exocytosis)
Smooth ER - without ribosomes;
 synthesizes fatty acids and steroids
 Inactivates or detoxifies drugs
VII. Golgi complex
Consists of 3-20 flattened membranous sacs
called cisternae
Structurally and functionally divided into
Entry (cis) face – accepts proteins from rough
ER
Medial cisternae – form glycoproteins,
glycolipids, and lipoproteins
Exit (trans) face – modifies the molecule
further then sorts and packages them for
transport to their destinations
VIII. Lysosome
Vesicle formed from golgi complex; contains
digestive enzyme
Digests worn-out organelles (autophagy),
entire cell (autolysis), and extracellular
IX. Peroxisome
Oxidizes amino acids and fatty acids;
detoxifies harmful substances such as alcohol;
produces hydrogen peroxide

X. Proteosome
Degrades unneeded, damaged, or faulty
proteins by cutting them into small peptides

XI. Mitochondrion
Site of aerobic cellular respiration reactions
that produce most of the cell’s ATP
Nucleus
Consists of
Nuclear envelope with pores – control the
movement of substances between the
nucleus and cytoplasm
Nucleoli – produce ribosomes
Chromosomes – consist of genes that control
cellular structure and direct cellular functions
Parts of a cell
Cell division
 Somatic cell duplicates its contents and
divides in two
 Human cells contain 23 pairs of
chromosomes, for a total of 46
 One member of each pair is inherited
from each parent
 2 chromosomes that make up each pair:
homologous chromosomes
Cell division
1. Interphase
 G1 phase
cell is metabolically active; it replicates most of its
organelles and cytosolic components but not its DNA
8-10 hours
 S phase
DNA replication occurs
Lasts for 8 hours
 G2 phase
cell growth continues, enzymes and other proteins
are synthesized in preparation for cell division
4-6 hours
Mitotic Phase
1. Prophase
Chromatin fibers condense into
paired chromatids
nucleolus and nuclear envelope
disappear
Each centrosome moves to an
opposite pole of the cell
2. Metaphase
Centromeres of chromatid pairs line
up at metaphase plate
3. Anaphase
Centromeres split
identical sets of chromosomes move to
opposite poles of cell
4. Telophase
Nuclear envelopes and nucleoli reappear
chromosomes resume chromatin form
Mitotic spindle disappears
Cytokinesis
Cytoplasmic division
contractile ring forms cleavage furrow around
center of cell, dividing cytoplasm into
separate and equal portions.
 Nerve Physiology:
Nerves:
 a. Action potential
 b. RMP of muscle: – 90mV
 c. RMP of nerve: -70mV
 d. Nerve cells at rest are positively charged
outside and negatively charged inside (RMP)
 e. Period of Action potention prior to application
to stimulus (RMP)
 f. Upon application of stimulus: Depolarization
 g. Hyperpolarization: Less than the RMP
 Propagation of action potential
a. Direction of propagation
b. Na influx: Depolarization
c. K efflux: Repolarization
d. All or nothing principle: Maximum intensity above the
threshold orf resting state
e. Aboslue refractory period:
i. Cell is no longer stimulated
ii. Peak of action potential
f. Relative Refractory period
i. 2/3 of repoarization
ii. Supramaximal intensity to stimulate the cell
membrane
Thank you for listening!
Post-lec Quiz
1. Condition of the equilibrium in the
body in the body’s internal
environment
2. Evaluates input it receives and sends
output after evaluation
3. RMP of muscle
4. Feedback system in normal childbirth
5. Type of feedback system that reverses
a change in a controlled condition
6. Random mixing of particles in a solution occurs
because of the particles’ kinetic energy
7-9. Give 3 factors that affect diffusion
10. “Cell drinking”, movement of extracellular fluid
into a cell to form a vesicle
11. Phase of cell division where identical sets of
chromosomes move to opposite poles of cell
12. Phase where DNA replication occurs
13. Organelle for protein synthesis
14. Site of aerobic cellular respiration reactions that
produce most of the cell’s ATP
15. What is my whole name?