Regulation of Gene Expression in

Prokaryotes
PRESENTERS:
HUMNA SHAHID (1231-BS-
MB-22)
AROOJ IMRAN (1296-BS-MB-
22)
MALEEHA TARIQ (1294-BS-
 Table of Contents
1 Gene Regulation Ensures a Physiological
Response

2 Regulation at the Level of Transcription Involves

Several Steps

3 Alternative Sigma Factors Recognize Different

Sets of Genes

4 Activators, Repressors and Operons

5 Specific Versus Global Control

6 Accessory Factors and Nucleoid-Binding

Proteins

7 Antitermination As a Control Mechanism

 Regulation of

01 transcription in
prokaryotes
Gene regulation ensures a physiological
response
 Prokaryotes the response of genes changes according to
conditions (temperature, growth, osmotic pressure, nutrients, cell
division)
 Repression of some genes (switched off)
 Induction of others ( switched on)
 Eukaryotes communication between cells as a whole required
 To yield functional protein, gene expression regulated as;
● Transcription of the gene to give the primary transcript
● Processing of the primary transcript to give mRNA
● Stability of mRNA to degradation
● Translation of mRNA to give polypeptide chains
● Processing and assembly of polypeptide chains and any
necessary co- factors to give a functional protein
● Control of activity of an enzyme or other protein ●
Degradation of protein
Transcription as more regulated

Transcription is more regulated than translation

● access of transcription apparatus to DNA
● recognition of promoter sequences
● initiation of RNA synthesis
● elongation of RNA
● termination
some steps of transcription are more regulated
like initiation as compared to elongation
Efficiency vs Rapid regulation

Efficency mehcanism
Gene is regulated at thr
initiation level of transcription
as it requires less energy

Rapid regulation
A precursor protein is produced
in advance and in favourable
conditions rapidly converted to
active protein
Positive and Negative control
Positive control
• Stimulates gene expression
• Activator protein binds to the
upstream portion of promotor
• Binding of RNA polymerase to
promotor
• Increase the rate of transcription
Negative control
• Stops gene expression
• Active repressor binds to operator
• Prevent RNA polymerase from
binding to promotor
• Preventing transcription
 Negative control in
Positive control in
transcription
transcription
2. Regulatory steps in Transcription

Recognition Initiation
Access to coding DNA
Access is not issue in Single RNA polymerase After recognition,
prokaryotes as DNA is not recognize the promtors sometimes initiation also
condensed to and also some sigma requires some activator
heterochromatin (like factors proteins that binds to
eukaryotes)
upstream

Elongation Termination
Once transcription Terminator sites are
initiates, regulatory recognized by RNA
effects are uncommon polymerase which stops
transcription, sometimes
over-ridden by anti-
terminal proteins
 3. Alternative Sigma
Factors
• A non-stranded sigma factor needed to recognize a
special subset of genes
• Sigma subunit of RNA polymerase recognizes the
promotor
• Major genes sometimes have promotors lack -10
and -35 sequences
• lacking promotors have recognition sequences
recognized by alternative sigma factors
• Sigma factors are named as ‘’ σ ‘’
• Molecular weight in “kd” or “RpoX”
• Each alternative sigma factor is needed for the
large expression of genes (50 or more)
• Required under special conditions like stationary
phase, nitrogen starvation, etc.
Heat shock
sigma factors
• High temperature damage the protein structure
• Set of proteins that protect this cell damage
heat shock proteins
• Set of genes encode these proteins, response to
high temperature
• Chaperonin protein helps the correct folding
of proteins
• Protease enzymes that degrade proteins
• E.g., E.coli have normal temperature (37 degree)
• At 46 degree, 30% of proteins are heat shock
At normal temperatures, the RpoH sigma factor
binds the chaperonin and is presented to the
protease for digestion. At high or extreme
temperatures, the chaperonin binds instead to mis-
folded proteins, leaving RpoH free to activate the
heat shock genes.
Cascade of alternate sigma factors in
spore formation
Gram +ve bacteria Bacillus produce spores
along with the mother cells
This shows the cascade of alternate sigma
factors by regulating the spore formation
It controlled by four sigma factors such as
σE, σK, σF and σG
 ACTIVATORS,
4 REPRESSORS &
OPERONS
 Point to Remember
Involvement of
activators

Formation of
RNA-Polymerase Require promoters mRNA
(Builders) for binding
No formation of
mRNA
Need to start Transcription
Involvement of
repressors
Activators Repressors
• Also called gene • Inherently active
activator proteins / promoters are
transcription factors. controlled by
• Increase gene regulatory proteins
expression by binding i.e., repressors.
to promoter (means • Suppress gene
that promoters only expression by binding
work when activators to promoter.
make them active). • Promotes negative
• Promotes positive regulation.
regulation.
 Activator proteins turn genes on.
Repressor proteins turn genes off.

In positive control, an activator is required to turn

Positive control a gene on, in response to a signal of some kind.

In negative control, a gene is switched off by a

Negative control repressor and is only expressed in the presence
of a signal.
 Inducers
Are signal molecules which
induce

Either repressors to Or activators to

regulate gene promote gene
expression expression
The Operon Model of Gene Expression

 Proposed by Francois Jacob & Jaqueus

Monod.
 They used very regulated lactose genes
of E. coli (Lactose operon / Lac operon).

Cluster of genes, which transcribe together to

give a single mRNA Polycistronic
mRNA

typically in prokaryotes and

encode multiple proteins
 Lac Operon
Consist of three structural genes

LacZ LacY LacA

Encode B- Encode lactose Encode lactose
galactosidase permease (transport acetylase (have no
(degrade lactose) proteins) known role)
 LacI
 Repressor protein / gene
 Codes only for repressor
during lactose utilization
Inducer Molecule is
Allolactose (isomer of
lactose made by B-
galactosidase)
 In Laboratory
When we need lac-operon genes
we use IPTG (iso-propyl-thiogalactosidase)
known as gratuitous inducer
(products of genes do

B-galactosidase can
degrade
not lactose but it)
metabolize
could not degrade
IPTG
 Nature of Signal Molecule

Which molecule fit the

active site of enzyme
IS DETERMINED BY Which molecule fit the
binding site of regulatory
proteins

Example: Small amount of lactose reach

inside cell but immediately converted to
allolactose (because it is more suitable for
binding)
 5
GLOBAL VS SPECIFIC
REGULATION
 Global control Specific Regulation Combination of both
controls
• It impacts multiple genes • Control over a smaller set
Most genes respond to
of genes
• Functions in response to both global and specific
• Specific signals regulate
signals
a general stimulus genes
Example:
• Example: Lac Operon: Activated by
Lac operon: Regulated
allolactose
Catabolite repression by LacI (specific) and Crp
Maltose Regulon: Regulated
(global)
by MalT (maltotriose)
 Regulons Lac Operon Regulation

Group of genes or operons Conditions

Key proteins:
• LacI repressor is absent
LacI and Crp • Crp protein is present
Regulated by the same
signal and regulatory protein

Separate promoters

Small and large regulons

Examples: Maltose and

Arginine regulon , Crp regulon
 Crp protein and its mechanism
• Crp is also called CAP (Catabolite Activator
Protein)
• Functions as a global activator
• Responds to overall carbon source
availability
• Mechanism
Allosteric protein of action

Crp binds cAMP

Binds on Crp site

RNA Polymerase
binds on promoter Mechanism of Crp
Transcription
Comparison of cAMP and c-
Feature
di-GMP c-di-GMP
cAMP

Discovery 1957 1987

ATP by Adenylate GTP by Diguanylate

Synthesis
cyclase cyclase

Regulates catabolite Controls lifestyle

Primary role
repression transitions

Environmental and
Signal Glucose depletion
lifestyle inputs

Cell envelope
Operons (e.g., lac
Target components, motility,
operon)
virulence
 cAMP and c-di-GMP
Regulation

Cyclic AMP in Regulation by Cyclic-di-GMP

Control of Gene Expression
 6
Accessory factors and
nucleoid Proteins
 STRESS GENE BINDING
PROTEINS PRIMARY ROLE
REGULATION PROPERTIES

Represses stress genes A/T-rich regions (350 Maintain DNA structure and
H-NS
(proU gene) sites in genome) gene silencing

Binds non-specifically Facilitates DNA bending,

Protects and stabilizes
HU to dsDNA; stabilizes supercoiling, recombination, and
DNA under stress
bends inversion

Recognizes specific Promotes DNA bending, site-

Activates stress genes
IHF DNA sequences; specific recombination, and
via DNA bending
induces sharp bends transcriptional regulation

Acts as a paralog of H-NS,

Allows stress gene Binds AT-rich DNA;
StpA repressing transcription under
expression interacts with H-NS
specific conditions
 DNA Looping and Nitrogen Metabolism
Regulation

General Role: Facilitates interaction of

distant activators with promoters
Mediated by proteins like HU and IHF
Nitrogen Metabolism:
Key Factors: RpoN (σ54) and upstream
activators NifA, IHF bends DNA, enabling
RNA polymerase-activator interaction
• NtrB phosphorylates NtrC during
ammonia depletion
• NtrC-P activates transcription of
nitrogen-source genes Looping of DNA in RpoN
Dependent Promoter
 7
Antitermination As
Control Mechanism
Antitermination is a regulatory mechanism in
which specific proteins or RNA structures
prevent the premature termination of
transcription with the aid of Antitermination
factors

Mechanism of Antitermination

Binding of RNA Recognition of

Polymerase to Antitermination
promoter sequences

Transcription
Attachment of
past the
Antitermination
terminator site
factor
 Nus Proteins and Their
Roles
Protein Role in Antitermination/Termination

Promotes termination and competes with

NusA
sigma factor

NusB Binds RNA polymerase at boxA sequences

Rpsj Binds to boxA; dual role in ribosome

(NusE) assembly

Assists in loading NusB and Rpsj onto RNA

NusG
polymerase
 Promoters Box A = TGCTCTTTAACA
NusG loads NusB/S10 onto RNA
polymerase at Box A sites

Antitermination in E. coli rrn Genes

Sigma NusA Cycle of RNA

Polymerase
Conclusion
Prokaryotic gene regulation enables precise and efficient
adaptation to environmental changes.

Key mechanisms include transcriptional control by sigma factors,

activators, and repressors, often organized in operons.

Accessory proteins and nucleoid-binding factors modulate DNA

structure and gene accessibility.

Antitermination mechanisms further ensure controlled

transcription.

Together, these systems provide prokaryotes with a robust and

dynamic response to their surroundings.
Thank You!

CREDITS: This presentation template was

created by Slidesgo, including icons by
Flaticon, and infographics & images by
Freepik