C

Chapter Five
Synchronous
Machine
Group members
ID
Section 1
•1
•2
•3
•4
•5
•6
 • Outline

• Introduction
• Basic Theory and Construction
• Equivalent Circuit
• Parallel Operation
• Testing and Efficiency
• Equivalent Circuit
• Other Modes of Operation
• Application of Synchronous Machines
 Introduction
A synchronous machine rotates at a constant speed in the steady state. Unlike
induction machines, the rotating air gap field and the rotor in the synchronous
machine rotate at the same speed, called the synchronous speed. Synchronous
machines are used primarily as generators of electrical power. In this case they
are called synchronous generators or alternators.

They are usually large machines generating electrical power at hydro, nuclear,
or, thermal power stations. Synchronous generators with power ratings of
several hundred MVA (mega-volt-amperes) are quite common in stations.
Synchronous generators are the primary energy conversion devices of the
world's electrical power systems today. In spite of continuing research for
more direct energy conversion techniques, it is conceded that synchronous
generators will continue to be used well into the next century
Cont..
An important feature of a synchronous motor
is that it can draw either lagging or leading
reactive current from the ac supply system. A
synchronous machine is a doubly excited
machine. Its rotor poles are excited by a dc
current and its stator windings are connected
to the ac supply . The air gap flux is therefore
the resultant of the fluxes due to both rotor
current and stator current. In induction
machines, the only source of excitation is the
cut–away view of synchronous machines
stator current, because rotor currents are
induced currents. Therefore, induction motors
always operate at a lagging power factor,
because lagging reactive current is required to
establish flux in the machine.
. Principle of Operation
As shown in , when a 3-f winding is
fed by a 3 supply, then a magnetic
flux of
constant magnitude but rotating at
synchronous speed, is produced.
Consider a two-pole stator of
Fig in which are
shown two stator poles
(marked NS and SS )
rotating at synchronous
speed, say, in clockwise
direction. With the rotor
position as shown,
suppose the stator poles
are at that instant situated
at points A and B. The two
similar poles, N (of rotor)
and NS (of stator) as well
as S and SS will repel each
other, with the result that
the rotor tends to rotate
in the anticlockwise
CONSTRUCTION OF THREE-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

The stator of the three-phase synchronous machine has a three-phase

distributed winding similar to that of the three-phase induction machine.
Unlike the dc machine, the stator winding, which is connected to the ac
supply system, is sometimes called the armature winding. It is designed
for high voltage and current.
The rotor has a winding called the field winding, which carries direct
current. The field winding on the rotating structure is normally fed from
an external dc source through slip rings and brushes. Synchronous
machines can be broadly divided into two groups as follows:

a) High-speed machines with cylindrical (or non-salient pole) rotors.

b) Low-speed machines with salient pole rotors.
Cont..
The cylindrical or non-salient pole rotor has one distributed winding and an
essentially uniform air gap. These motors are used in large generators with two
or sometimes four poles and are usually driven by steam turbines. The rotors
are long and have a small diameter, as shown in Figure. On the other hand,
salient pole rotors have concentrated windings on the poles and a nonuniform
air gap. Salient pole generators have a large number of poles, sometimes as
many as 50, and operate at lower speeds.
The synchronous generators in hydroelectric power stations are of the
salient pole type and are driven by water turbines. These generators are rated
for tens or hundreds of megawatts. The rotors are shorter but have a large
diameter as shown in Figure. Smaller salient pole synchronous machines in the
range of 50 kW to 5 MW am also used. Such synchronous generators are used
independently as emergency power supplies. Salient pole synchronous motors
are used to drive pumps, cement mixers, and some other industrial drives.
Cont..

(a) salient pole (b) non-salient pole

Figure rotor construction of synchronous machines

 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS

Refer to Figure (a) and assume that when the field current If flows through the
rotor field winding, it establishes a sinusoidally distributed flux in the air gap. If
the rotor is now rotated by the prime mover (which can be a turbine or diesel
engine or dc motor or induction motor), a revolving field is produced in the air
gap. This field is called the excitation field, because it is produced by the
excitation current .
If The rotating flux so produced will change the flux linkage of the armature
windings aa', bb', and cc' and will induce voltages in these stator windings. These
induced voltages, shown in Fig. b, have the same magnitudes but are phase-shifted
by 120 electrical degrees.
Cont..

Figure Excitation voltage in synchronous machines

Cont..
They are called excitation voltages Ef . The rotor speed and frequency of the induced
voltage are related by:

Where n is the rotor speed in rpm P is the number of poles The excitation voltage
in rms is
Ef  4.44 f f NKw
Where f is the flux per pole due to the excitation Current If N is the number of
turns in each phase Kw is the winding factor E f  n f
Where f is the flux per pole due to the excitation Current If
N is the number of turns in each phase
Kw is the winding factor
E f  n f
 Cont..
The excitation voltage is proportional to the machine speed and excitation flux, and the latter in
turn depends on the excitation current If . The variation of the excitation voltage with the field
current is shown in Figure. The induced voltage at If = 0 is due to the residual magnetism. Initially
the voltage rises linearly with the field current, but as the field current is further increased, the flux
f does not increase linearly with If because of saturation of the magnetic circuit, and therefore Ef
levels off. If the machine terminals are kept open, the excitation voltage is the same as the terminal
voltage and can be measured using a voltmeter. The curve shown in Figure is known as the open-
circuit characteristic (OCC) or- magnetization characteristic of the synchronous machine.

Figure 5.5 Open circuit characteristic (OCC) or magnetization characteristic of a synchronous machine.
Cont..

If the stator terminals of the machine are connected to a 3 load, stator current Ia will flow. The
frequency of Ia will be the same as that of the excitation voltage Ef . The stator currents flowing
in the 3 windings will also establish a rotating field in the air gap. The net air gap flux is the
resultant of the fluxes produced by rotor current If and stator current Ia. Let f be the flux due
to If and a be the flux due to Ia known as the armature reaction flux. Then, r   f  a =
resultant air gap flux, assuming no saturation It may be noted that the resultant and the
component fluxes rotate in the air gap at the same speed. The space phasor diagram for these
fluxes is shown in Figure.
 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
A synchronous moter is electrically identical with an alternator or
a.c. generator. In fact, a given synchronous machine may be used,
at least theoretically, as an alternator, when driven mechanically
or as a motor, when driven electrically, just as in the case of d.c.
machines. Most synchronous motors are rated between 150 kW
and 15 MW and run at speeds ranging from 150 to 1800 r.p.m.
Some characteristic features of a synchronous motor are worth
noting :
1. It runs either at synchronous speed or not at all i.e. while
running it maintains a constant speed. The only way to change its
speed is to vary the supply frequency (because Ns = 120 f / P).
2. It is not inherently self-starting. It has to be run up to
synchronous (or near synchronous) speed by some means, before
it can be synchronized to the supply.
Cont..

The rotor and the stator parts of motor.

Cont..
When synchronous machine is used as a motor, one should be able to connect
it directly to the power supply like other motors, such as dc motors or
induction motors. However, a synchronous motor is not self-starting. If the
rotor field poles are excited by the field current and the stator terminals are
connected to the ac supply, the motor will not start; instead, it vibrates. This
can be explained as follows.

Let us consider a two-pole synchronous machine. If it is connected to a 3,

60Hz ac supply, stator currents will produce a rotating field that will 3600 rpm
in the air gap. Let us represent this rotating field by two stator poles rotating at
3600 rpm, as shown in Figure (a). At start (t=0), let the rotor poles be at the
position shown in Figure (a).
Cont..
The rotor will therefore experience a clockwise
torque, making it rotate in the direction of the
stator rotating poles. At t = t1, let the stator poles
move by half revolution, shown in Figure (b).
The rotor poles have hardly moved, because of
the high inertia of the rotor. Therefore, at this
instant the rotor experiences a counterclockwise
torque tending to make it rotate in the direction
opposite to that of the stator poles. The net
torque on the rotor in one revolution will be
zero, and therefore the motor will not develop
any starting torque. The stator field is rotating so
fast that the rotor poles cannot catch up or lock Figure Torque on rotor at start.
onto it. The motor will not speed up but will
vibrate.
Cont..
Two methods are normally used to start a synchronous motor:
a) use variable-frequency supply or
b) start the machine as an induction motor.

a) Start with Variable-Frequency Supply

By using a frequency converter, a synchronous motor can be brought from
standstill to its desired speed. The arrangement is shown schematically in Figure.
The motor is started with a low-frequency supply. This will make the stator field
rotate slowly so that the rotor poles can follow the stator poles. Afterward, the
frequency is gradually increased and the motor brought to its desired speed.
The frequency converter is a costly power conditioning unit, and therefore this
method is expensive. However, if the synchronous motor has to run at variable
speeds, this method may be used.
 Cont..

Figure Starting of a synchronous motor using a variable-frequency supply . .

b)Start as an Induction Motor

If the frequency converter is not available, or if the synchronous motor does not have to run at
various speeds, it can be started as an induction motor. For this purpose an additional winding,
which resembles the cage of an induction motor, is mounted on the rotor. This cage-type winding
is known a damper or amortisseur winding and is shown in the Figure.
 Cont..
To start the motor the field winding is left unexcited; often it is shunted by a
resistance. If the motor terminals are now connected to the ac supply, the motor will
start as an induction motor because currents will be induced in the damper winding
to produce torque. The motor will speed up and will approach synchronous speed.
The rotor is then closely following the stator field poles, which are rotating at the
synchronous speed. Now if the rotor poles are excited by a field current from a dc
source, the rotor poles, closely following the stator poles, will be locked to them.
The rotor will then run at synchronous speed.

If the machine runs at synchronous speed, no current will be induced in the damper
winding. The damper winding is therefore operative for starting. Note that if the
rotor speed is different from the synchronous speed because of sudden load change
or other transients, currents will be induced in the damper winding to produce a
torque to restore the synchronous speed.
Cont..
The presence of this restorative torque
is the reason for the name "damper"
winding. Also note that a damper
winding is not required to start a
synchronous generator and parallel it
with the infinite bus. However, both
synchronous generators and motors
have damper windings to damp out
transient oscillations.

Figure cage-type damper (or amortisseur)

winding in a synchronous machine.
 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT MODEL

In the preceding sections the qualitative behavior of the synchronous machine as

both a generator and a motor has been discussed to provide “feel” for the machine
behavior. We can now develop an equivalent circuit model that can be used to
study the performance characteristics with sufficient accuracy. Since the steady-
state behavior will be studied, the circuit time constants of the field and damper
windings need not be considered. The equivalent circuit will be derived on a per-
phase basis.
The current If in the field winding produces a flux f in the air gap. The current Ia
in the stator winding produces flux a. Part of it, al, known as the leakage flux,
links with the stator winding only and does not link with the field winding. A
major part, ar, known as the armature reaction flux, is established in the air gap
and links with the field winding. The resultant air gap flux r is therefore due to
the two component fluxes, f and ar.
Cont..
Each component flux induces a component voltage in the stator winding. In Figure
5.14a, Ef is induced by f , Ear by ar , and the resultant voltage Er by the
resultant flux r . The excitation voltage Ef can be found from the open-circuit
curve of Figure. However, the voltage Ear, known as the armature reaction
voltage, depends on ar (and hence on Ia). From Figure (a),

Er  Ear  Ef Or Ef  Ear  Er
From the phasor diagram of Figure ((b), the voltage Ear lags ar (or Ia ) by 90°.
Therefore, Ia lags the phasor –Ear by 90°. In Eq. the voltage -Ear can thus be
represented as a voltage drop across a reactance Xar due to the current Ia.
Equation 6.6 can be written as :
Ef  Ia jXar  Er
Cont..
This reactance Xar is known as the reactance of armature reaction or the
magnetizing reactance and is shown in Figure (c). If the stator winding resistance
Ra and the leakage reactance Xal (which accounts for the leakage flux al) are
included, the perphase equivalent circuit is represented by the circuit of Figure (d).
The resistance Ra is the effective resistance and is approximately 1.6 times the dc
resistance of the stator winding.

The effective resistance includes the effects of the operating temperature and the
skin effect caused by the alternating current flowing through the armature
winding. If the two reactance Xar and Xal are combined into one reactance, the
equivalent circuit model reduces to the form shown in Figure e, where

Xs  Xar  Xal (called synchronous reactance)

Zs  Ra  Xs (called synchronous
impedance)
Cont..

(a)

(b)
Cont..

Figure Equivalent circuit of a synchronous machine

Cont..
The synchronous reactance Xs takes into account all the flux, magnetizing as well
as leakage, produced by the armature (stator) current. The values of these
machine parameters depend on the size of the machine. Table 5.1 shows their
order of magnitude in the per-unit system.
Table 5.1 Synchronous Machine Parameters

A 0.1 pu impedance means that if the rated current flows, the impedance will
produce a voltage drop of 0.1 (or 10%) of the rated value. In general, as the
machine size increases, the per-unit resistance decreases but the per-unit
synchronous reactance increases.
 testin
g
The synchronous reactance is an important parameter in the equivalent circuit of
the synchronous machine. This reactance can be determined by performing two
tests, an open-circuit test and a short-circuit test.
a) Open-Circuit Test
The synchronous machine is driven at the synchronous speed, and the circuit
terminal voltage Vt(= Ef) is measured as the field current If , is varied (see Figure
(a)). The curve showing the variation of Ef with If is known as the open-circuit
characteristic (OCC, shown in Fig. (c)). Because the terminals are open, this curve
shows the variation of the excitation voltage Ef with the field current If . Note that
as the field current is increased, the magnetic circuit shows saturation effects.

The line passing through the linear part of the OCC is called the air gap line. The
excitation voltage would have changed along this line if there were no magnetic
 b) Short-Circuit Test

The circuit arrangement for this test is shown in Figure (b). Ammeters are
connected to each phase and the terminals are then shorted. The synchronous
machine is driven at Synchronous speed. The field current If is now varied and
the average of the three armature currents is measured. The variation of the
armature current with the field current is shown in Figure c and is known as the
short-circuit characteristic (SCC).

Note that the SCC is a straight line. This is due to the fact that under short-
circuit conditions, the magnetic circuit does not saturate because the air gap
flux remains at a low level. This fact can be explained as follows.
Figure --- Open-circuit and short-circuit characteristics. (a) Circuit for open-circuit test.
(b) for short-circuit test. (c) Characteristics.
 Parallel Operation

The operation of connecting an alternator in parallel with another or with

common bus-bars is known as synchronizing. Generally, alternators are
used in a power system where they are in parallel with many other
alternators. It means that the alternator is connected to a live system of
constant voltage and constant frequency. Often the electrical system to
which the alternator is connected, has already so many alternators and
loads connected to it that no matter what power is delivered by the
incoming alternator, the voltage and frequency of the system remain the
same. In that case, the alternator is said to be connected to infinite bus-
bars. It is never advisable to connect a stationary alternator to live with
another alternator, because, stator induced e.m.f. being zero, a short-circuit
will result. For proper synchronization of alternators, the following three
conditions must be satisfied :
1. The terminal voltage (effective) of the incoming alternator must be the
same as bus-bar voltage.
2. The speed of the incoming machine must be such that its frequency (=
It means that the switch must be closed at (or very near) the instant the two voltages have
correct phase
relationship.
Condition (1) is indicated by a voltmeter, conditions (2) and (3) are indicated by
synchronizing lamps
or a synchronoscope.

(a) Single-phase
b) Three-phase Alternators
alternators, it is necessary to
synchronize one phase only, the other two
phases will then be synchronized
automatically.

However, first it is necessary that the

incoming alternator is correctly ‘phased
out’ i.e. the phases are connected in the
proper order of R, Y, B and
not R, B, Y etc. In this case, three lamps are
used. But they are deliberately
connected asymmetrically, as shown in Fig

incoming machine is running too slow. If

lamps were connected symmetrically, they
would dark out or glow
up simultaneously (if the phase rotation is
the same as that of the bus-bars).
Parallel Operation of Two Alternators
onsider two Calternators with identical
speed/load char
acteristics connected in parallel as shown in
Fig. The
common terminal voltage V is given by
 Other Modes Of
Operator
• Synchronizing. Current
Once synchronized properly, two alternators continue to run in synchronism.
Any tendency on the part of one to drop out of synchronism is immediately
counteracted by the production of a synchronizing torque, which brings it
back to synchronism.
When in exact synchronism, the two alternators have equal terminal p.d.’s
and are in exact phase
opposition, so far as the local circuit (consisting of their armatures) is
concerned. Hence, there is no current
circulating round the local circuit. As shown in Fig. 37.82 (b) e.m.f. E1 of
machine No. 1 is in exact phase
opposition to the e.m.f. of machine No. 2 i.e. E2. It should be clearly
understood that the two e.m.f.s. are
in opposition, so far as their local circuit is concerned but are in the same
direction with respect to the
Synchronizing Power
 Alternators Connected to Infinite Bus-
bars

Load Sharing between Two Alternators

When several alternators are required to run in parallel, it probably happens that
their rated outputs differ.

In such cases it is usual to divide the total load

between them in such a way that each alternator takes the load in the same
proportion of its rated load in total rated outputs.
Power Flow within a Synchronous
Motor
. Losses in a Synchronous Machine and Efficiency
A synchronous machine is used to convert mechanical
energy into electrical
energy or vice-versa.
While doing so, the whole of input energy does not appear
at the output but a part of it is lost in the form of heat in
the surroundings.
This wasted energy is called losses in the machine.
The various losses occurring in a synchronous machine can
be sub-divided as:
1. Copper losses.
2. Iron losses.
3. Mechanical losses
4. Stray losses
Eddy current loss: When flux linking with the magnetic material
changes (or
flux is cut by the magnetic material) an emf is induced in it which
circulates
eddy currents through it. These eddy currents produce eddy
current loss in the
form of heat. It is expressed with reasonable accuracy by the
expression:
Pe = KeVf 2 t 2B2 m
Mechanical losses: As the field system of a synchronous machine is a rotating
part, some power is required to overcome:
(i) Air friction of rotating field system (windage loss).
(ii) Friction at the bearing and friction between brushes and slip rings (friction
loss). These losses are known as mechanical losses. To reduce these losses
proper lubrication is done at the bearings.
Stray losses: In addition to the iron losses, the core losses are also caused by
distortion of the magnetic field under load conditions and losses in insulation
of armature and field winding, these losses are called stray lasses.
These losses
are also included while determining the efficiency of synchronous machines.
Synchronous Motor Applications
Synchronous motors find extensive application for the following classes of service :
1. Power factor correction
2. Constant-speed, constant-load drives
3. Voltage regulation
(a) Power factor correction
Overexcited synchronous motors having leading power factor are widely used for improving
power factor of those power systems which employ a large number of induction motors (Fig. 38.49)
and other devices having lagging p.f. such as welders and flourescent lights etc.
(b) Constant-speed applications
Because of their high efficiency and high-speed, synchronous motors (above 600 r.p.m.) are
well-suited for loads where constant speed is required such as centrifugal pumps, belt-driven
reciprocating compressors, blowers, line shafts, rubber and paper mills etc.
Low-speed synchronous motors (below 600 r.p.m.) are used for drives such as centrifugal and
screw-type pumps, ball and tube mills, vacuum pumps, chippers and metal rolling mills etc.
(c) Voltage regulation
The voltage at the end of a long transmission line varies greatly especially when large inductive
loads are present. When an inductive load is disconnected suddenly, voltage tends to rise
considerably
above its normal value because of the line capacitance. By installing a synchronous motor with a
field regulator (for varying its excitation), this voltage rise can be controlled.
When line voltage decreases due to inductive load, motor excitation is increased, thereby raising
its p.f. which compensates for the line drop. If, on the other hand, line voltage rises due to line
capacitive effect, motor excitation is decreased, thereby making its p.f. lagging which helps to