Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Prof K.Venkat Reddy

ECE Dept, SNIST

Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Introduction
 The Taxonomy of Signals
 Signal: A function that conveys information

Amplitude
Continuous Discrete
Continuous continuous-time
analog signals
signals
Time
discrete-time
Discrete digital signals
signals

3 May 24, 2025

 Signal Process Systems
Facilitate the extraction • Filters
of desired information • Parameter estimation
e.g.,

Signal
Signal
signal Processing
Processing output
System
System

4 May 24, 2025

 Signal Process Systems
continuous-time signal continuous-time signal
analog
analog output
signal system
system

discrete-time signal discrete-time signal

discrete-
discrete-
signal time output
time
system
system

digital signal digital signal

digital
digital output
signal system
system
5 May 24, 2025
 Signal Process Systems
 A important class of systems

Linear
Linear Shift-Invariant
Shift-Invariant Systems.
Systems.
 In particular, we’ll discuss

Linear
Linear Shift-Invariant
Shift-Invariant Discrete-Time
Discrete-Time Systems.
Systems.
6 May 24, 2025
Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Discrete-Time Signals---

Sequences
 Representation by a Sequence

 Discrete-time system theory

– Concerned with processing signals that are
represented by sequences.

x {x[n]},  n
x[n]

3 4 5 6 7 n
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 8 9 10

8 May 24, 2025

 Important Sequences
 Unit-sample sequence [n]
 Sometime call [n]
 a Discrete-time impulse; or
 an Impulse

[n]
1 n 0 1
 [n] 
0 n 0 n
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

9 May 24, 2025

 Important Sequences
 Shifted unit-sample sequence [n-m] with m=2
 [n-2] Impulse shifted to right side by two positions
1 n 2
 [n  2] 
0 n 2
[n-2]
1

n
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

10 May 24, 2025

 Important Sequences
 Shifted unit-sample sequence [n-m] with m=-2
 [n+2] Impulse shifted to left side by two positions
1 n  2
 [n  2] 
0 n  2
[n+2]
1

n
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

11 May 24, 2025

 Important Sequences
 Unit-step sequence u[n]

1 for n 0  Fact:
u[n] 
0 for n  0  [n] u[n]  u[n  1]
u[n]

n
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

12 May 24, 2025

 Important Sequences
 Impulse using Unit-step sequences
 [n] u[n]  u[n  1]
u[n]

n
δ[n]
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

u[n-1] n
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4-3 -2 -10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

n
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 010

13 May 24, 2025

 Important Sequences
Real exponential sequence
n
x[n] a

x[n]
...
... n
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

14 May 24, 2025

 Important Sequences
Sinusoidal sequence
x[n]  A cos( n0   )

x[n]

15 May 24, 2025

 Important Sequences
Complex exponential sequence
(  j0 ) n
x[n] e

16 May 24, 2025

 Important Sequences
 A sequence x[n] is defined to be periodic with
period N if

x[n]  x[n  N ] for all N

j 0 n
 Example: Consider x[n] e
x[n] e j0 n e j0 ( n  N ) e j0 N e j0 n  x[n  N ]

N 
2 k 2 must be a rational
 0 N  2 k 0 0 number
17 May 24, 2025
 Energy of a Sequence
 Energy of a sequence is defined by

n 
E   | x[n] | 2

n 

18 May 24, 2025

 Operations on Sequences
 Sum
x  y {x[n]  y[n]}
 Product
x y {x[n] y[n]}
 Multiplication

 x { x[n]}
 Shift
y[n]  x[n  n0 ]
19 May 24, 2025
 Sequence Representation
using delay unit

x[n]   x[k ] [n  k ]
k 

x[n]
a-3
a1
2 7 n
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10

a2 a7

x[n] a 3 [n  3]  a1 [n  1]  a2 [n  3]  a7 [n  7]

20 May 24, 2025
Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Linear Shift-Invariant
Systems
 Systems

x[n] TT[[]] y[n]=T[ x[n]

]

Mathematically modeled as a unique

transformation or operator.
22 May 24, 2025
 Linear Systems

x(n) TT[[]] y[n]=T[x(n)

]
T [ax1 (n)  bx2 (n)] aT [ x1 (n)]  bT [ x2 (n)]

Obeys Superposition principle

23 May 24, 2025

 Examples:

x(n) TT[[]] y(n)=T[x(n)]

Ideal Delay System y (n)  x(n  nd )

M2
1
Moving Average y ( n)   x(n  k )
M 1  M 2  1 k  M1
n
Accumulator y ( n)   x ( k )
24 k  May 24, 2025
 Examples:

x(n) Are
Are these
TT[[]systems
these ]systems linear?
linear?
y(n)=T[x(n)]

Ideal Delay System y (n)  x(n  nd )

M2
1
Moving Average y ( n)   x(n  k )
M 1  M 2  1 k  M1
n
Accumulator y ( n)   x ( k )
25 k  May 24, 2025
 Examples:

x(n) TT[[]] y(n)=T[x(n)]

2
A Memoryless System y (n) [ x(n)]

Is
Is this
this system
system linear?
linear?
26 May 24, 2025
 Linear Systems

x(n)

x(n)   x(k )(n  k ) TT[[]] y(n)=T[x(n)]
  
y (n) T   x(k )(n  k )
k   k  

 
y (n)   x(k ) T [ (n  k )]   x(k ) hk (n)
k  k 
Delayed Impulse
as input

27 May 24, 2025

 Shift-Invariant Systems

x(n) TT[[]] y(n)=T[x(n)]

x(n-k): Delayed i/p y(n-k): Delayed o/p

x(n) y(n)

x(n-1) y(n-1)

x(n-2) y(n-2)

28 May 24, 2025

 Shift-Invariant Systems

x(n) y(n)=T[x(n)]
TT[[]]
x(n-k) y(n-k)
x(n) y(n)

0
Delayed
Delayed input
input 0
y(n-1)
x(n-1) produces
produces
0
x(n-2) Delayed
Delayed 0
y(n-2)
Response
Response
29 0 0
May 24, 2025
 Shift-Invariant Systems

y(n)=T[x(n)]
x(n) : Input
T[x(n)] : Output due to input
x(n-k) :Delayed input
T[x(n-k)]: Output due to
y(n) : Output delayed input
y(n-k) : Delayed output
y(n-k)=T[x(n-k)]
If delayed output is equal to output due to delayed input
then system is said to be Shift-invariant
Shift-Invariant Systems

y(n)=T[x(n)]
If x[n]  [n] : Impulse as input then
y[n] T { [n]} h[n] :impulse response of the
system

For shift-invariant system

T { [n  k ]} h[n  k ]
 Linear Shift-Invariant Systems

x(n)

x(n)   x(k )(n  k ) TT[[]] y(n)=T[x(n)]
  
y (n) T   x(k )(n  k )
k   k  

 
y (n)   x(k )T [(n  k )]   x(k )h(n  k )
k  k 
Delayed Impulse Delayed Impulse
as input Response

32 May 24, 2025

 Linear Shift-Invariant Systems

x(n)

x ( n)   x ( k )  ( n  k ) TT[[]] y(n)=T[x(n)]
  
y (n) T   x(k )  (n  k )
k   k  

 
y (n)   x(k )T [(n  k )]   x(k )h(n  k )
k  k 
Response due to Delayed impulse
Delayed impulse Response

33 May 24, 2025

 Impulse Response
x(n)=(n) h(n)=T[(n)
TT[[]] ]
0 0

0 0

34 May 24, 2025

 Convolution Sum
(n) h(n
TT[[]] )
x(n) y(n)

y (n)   x(k )h(n  k )  x(n) * h(n)
k 
convolution
AAlinear
linearshift-invariant
shift-invariantsystem
systemisiscompletely
completely
characterized
characterizedbybyits
itsimpulse
impulseresponse.
response.
35 May 24, 2025
 Characterize a System

x(n) h(n)
h(n) x(n)*h(n)

36 May 24, 2025

 Properties of Convolution

y (n)   x(k )h(n  k )  x(n) * h(n)
k 

y (n)   h(k ) x(n  k ) h(n) * x(n)
k 

Convolution is Commutative

x(n) * h(n) h(n) * x(n)

37 May 24, 2025
 Properties of Convolution

x(n) hh11(n)
(n) hh22(n)
(n) y(n)

x(n) hh22(n)
(n) hh11(n)
(n) y(n)

x(n) hh11(n)*h
(n)*h22(n)
(n) y(n)

These
These three
three systems
systems are
are
identical.
identical.
Convolution is Associate
38 May 24, 2025
 Properties of Convolution

hh11(n)
(n)
x(n) + y(n)
hh22(n)
(n)

x(n) hh11(n)+h
(n)+h22(n)
(n) y(n)

These
These two
two systems
systems are
are identical.
identical.
Convolution is Distributive
39 May 24, 2025
 
y (n)   x(k )h(n  k )
k 

Convolution Process steps

1. Given x[n] and h[n], choose an initial value of
n, the starting time for evaluating the output
sequence y[n]. If x[n] starts at n=n1 and h[n]
starts at n=n2 then n=n1+n2 is a good choice.
2. Express both the sequences in terms of the
index k to get h[k] and x[k].
3. Tilt h[k] about k=0 to obtain h[-k] and shift by n
to the right if n is positive and left if n is
negative to obtain h[n-k].
40 May 24, 2025
 
y (n)   x(k )h(n  k )
k 

Convolution Process steps

4. Multiply the two sequences x[k] and h[n-k]
element by element and sum the products to
get y[n].
5. Increment the index n, shift the sequence
h[n-k] from left to right by one sample and
repeat step-4.
6. Repeat step-5 until the sum of products is
zero for all remaining values of n.

41 May 24, 2025

 Example.1
Given x(n) {3, 2,1, 2} and h[n] {1, 2,1, 2}


find y[n]  x[n] * h[n].

y(n)=?
n h[n]
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

n
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

42 May 24, 2025

 x(n) {3, 2,1, 2} and h[n] {1, 2,1, 2}


y (n)   x(k )h(n  k )
Example.1 k 

n1=0, n2=-1  n=n1+n2=-1

h[k]
x[k]

k k
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

h[-1-k] h[-k]

k k
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7


y ( 1)   x(k )h( 1  k ) 3.1 3
k 
43 May 24, 2025
 x(n) {3, 2,1, 2} and h[n] {1, 2,1, 2}


y (n)   x(k )h(n  k )
Example.1 k 

h[k]
x[k]

k k
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

h[-k]
k
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7


y (0)   x(k )h( k ) 3.2  2.1 6  2 8
k 
44 May 24, 2025
 x(n) {3, 2,1, 2} and h[n] {1, 2,1, 2}


y (n)   x(k )h(n  k )
Example.1 k 

h[k]
x[k]

k k
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

h[1-k]
k
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7


y (1)   x(k )h(1  k ) 3.1  2.2  1.1 8
k 
45 May 24, 2025
 x(n) {3, 2,1, 2} and h[n] {1, 2,1, 2}


y (n)   x(k )h(n  k )
Example.1 k 

h[k]
x[k]

k k
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

h[2-k]
k
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7


y (2)   x(k )h(2  k ) 3.2  2.1  1.2  2.1 12
k 
46 May 24, 2025
 x(n) {3, 2,1, 2} and h[n] {1, 2,1, 2}


y (n)   x(k )h(n  k )
Example.1 k 

h[k]
x[k]

k k
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

h[3-k]
k
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7


y (3)   x(k )h(3  k ) 2.2  1.1  2.2 9
k 
47 May 24, 2025
 x(n) {3, 2,1, 2} and h[n] {1, 2,1, 2}


y (n)   x(k )h(n  k )
Example.1 k 

h[k]
x[k]

k k
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
h[4-k]

k
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7


y (4)   x(k )h(4  k ) 1.2  2.1 4
k 
48 May 24, 2025
 x(n) {3, 2,1, 2} and h[n] {1, 2,1, 2}


y (n)   x(k )h(n  k )
Example.1 k 

h[k]
x[k]

k k
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
h[5-k]

k
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7


y (5)   x(k )h(5  k ) 2.2 4
k 
49 May 24, 2025
 x(n) {3, 2,1, 2} and h[n] {1, 2,1, 2}


y (n)   x(k )h(n  k )
Example.1 k 

y (n) {3, 8, 8,12, 9, 4, 4}



y[n
]
n
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

50 May 24, 2025

 Example.2
x(n) u (n)  u (n  N )

a n n 0
h(n)  y(n)=?
0 n0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 n

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 n

51 May 24, 2025

 Example

y (n)  x(n) * h(n)   x(k )h(n  k )
k 

x(k)
k
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

h(k) k
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

h(0k)
k
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

52 May 24, 2025

 Example

y (n)  x(n) * h(n)   x(k )h(n  k )
k 

x(k)
k
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
compute y(0)
h(0k)
k
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
compute y(1)
h(1k)
k
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
How to computer y(n)?
53 May 24, 2025
 Example
Two
Two conditions
conditions have
have to
to be
be considered.
considered.


y (n)  x(n) * h(n)   x(k )h(n  k )
k  n<N
n<N and
and nN.
nN.
x(k)
k
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
compute y(0)
h(0k)
k
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
compute y(1)
h(1k)
k
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
How to computer y(n)?
54 May 24, 2025
 Example

y (n)  x(n) * h(n)   x(k )h(n  k )
k 

n<N
 ( n 1) n 1
n n
1  a a  a
y (n)  a n  k a n  a  k a n 1

k 0 k 0 1 a 1 a 1

nN
N1 N1 N n n N
1  a a  a
y (n)  a n  k a n  a  k a n 1

k 0 k 0 1 a 1 a 1
55 May 24, 2025
 Example

y (n)  x(n) * h(n)   x(k )h(n  k )
k 
5
4 n<N
3
 ( n 1) n 1
2
n n
1  a a  a
1 y (n)  a n  k a n  a  k a n 1

0 k 0 k 0 1 a 1 a 1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

nN
N1 N1 N n n N
1  a a  a
y (n)  a n  k a n  a  k a n 1

k 0 k 0 1 a 1 a 1
56 May 24, 2025
 Impulse Response of
the Ideal Delay System

Ideal Delay System y (n)  x(n  nd )

By letting x(n)=(n) and y(n)=h(n),
h(n) (n  nd )

(n
(n nndd))
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 n nd
n
57 May 24, 2025
 Impulse Response of
the Ideal Delay System

x(n) * (n  nd )  x(n  nd )

(n nd) ： Shifts input by nd and

gives that as output

(n
(n nndd))
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 n nd n

58 May 24, 2025

 Impulse Response of
the Moving Average
M2
1
Moving Average y ( n)   x(n  k )
M 1  M 2  1 k  M1
M2
1
h( n)    (n  k )
M 1  M 2  1 k  M 1

 1
 for  M 1 n M 2
h(n)  M 1  M 2  1
0 otherwise

... ...
M1  0  M2
Sequence
Sequence of
of (n
(n k)
k)
n
59 May 24, 2025
 Impulse Response of
the Accumulator
n
Accumulator y ( n)   x ( k )
k 

n
h(n)   (k ) u (n)
k 

...
n
Unit-step
Unit-step function
function
0

60 May 24, 2025

Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Stability and Causality

 Stability
 Stablesystems --- every bounded input produce
a bounded output (BIBO)
 Necessary and sufficient condition for a BIBO is

 
S   | h( k ) |  
k 

62 May 24, 2025

 Prove
Necessary Condition for Stability

 Showthat if x is bounded and S < , then y is

bounded.

 
| y (n) |  h(k )x(n  k ) M  | h(k ) |  
k  k 

where M = max x(n)

63 May 24, 2025

 Prove
Sufficient Condition for Stability

 Show that if S = , then one can find a

bounded sequence x such that y is unbounded.

 h* (  n)
 h(n) 0
Define x(n) | h( n) |
0 h(n) 0

 
| h ( k ) |2
y ( 0)   x (  k ) h ( k )   S
k  k  | h( k ) |

64 May 24, 2025

 Causality
 Causal systems --- output for y(n0) depends
only on x(n) with n n0.
A causal system whose impulse response h(n)
satisfies

h(n) 0 for n  0

65 May 24, 2025

 Example:
 Show that the linear shift-invariant system with
impulse response h(n)=anu(n) where |a|<1 is
stable.

 
1
S   | h(k ) |  a  k

k  k 0 1 a

66 May 24, 2025

 x(n TT[[]] y(n)=T[x(n)
) ]

Example:
 Check the following systems for stability and
causality

Ideal Delay System y (n)  x(n  nd )

M2
1
Moving Average y ( n)   x(n  k )
M 1  M 2  1 k  M1
n
Accumulator y ( n)   x ( k )
k 
May 24, 2025
67
 x(n TT[[]] y(n)=T[x(n)
) ]

Example:
 Check the following systems for stability and
causality

y (n)  x[n]
2
Squarer

Compressor y (n)  x[ Mn ],    n  , M is  ve int eger

Forward difference y (n)  x[n  1]  x[n]

Backward difference y (n)  x[n]  x[n  1]

May 24, 2025
68
 Ideal Delay System

y (n)  x(n  nd )
Solution

Select x1[n]=x2[n] for n≤k

x1[n]≠x2[n] for n>k
Find T{x1[n]}=x1[n-nd] and T{x2[n]}=x2[n-nd]
At n=k T{x1[n]}= T{x2[n]} if nd is positive
So system is causal for nd≥0
System is noncausal for nd<0

If x[n]<∞ .i.e. M, bounded input y[n] also bounded .

So system is stable.
69 May 24, 2025
 Moving Average system
M2
1
Solution
y ( n)   x(n  k )
M 1  M 2  1 k  M1

Select x1[n]=x2[n] for n≤k x1[n]≠x2[n] for n>k

M2
1
T{x1[n]}= 
M 1  M 2  1 k  M1
x1 (n  k ) and
M2
1
T{x2[n]}= M  M  1  x2 (n  k )
1 2 k  M 1

T{x1[n]}= T{x2[n]} if M1≤0 and M2>-M1

Then the system is causal otherwise the system is
noncausal
70 May 24, 2025
 Moving Average
M2
1
y ( n)   x(n  k )
M 1  M 2  1 k  M1
Solutions

If x[n]  M then
M2
1 ( M 1  M 2  1) M
y[n]  
M 1  M 2  1 k  M1
M
M1  M 2 1
M

If x[n]<∞ .i.e. M bounded input then output y[n] also

bounded. So the system is stable.

71 May 24, 2025

 n

Accumulator y ( n)   x ( k )
k 

Solutions

Select x1[n]=x2[n] for n≤k x1[n]≠x2[n] for n>k

n n

T{x1[n]}=  x (k )1 and T{x2[n]}=  x (k )

k 
2
k 

T{x1[n]}= T{x2[n]} so the system is ncausal.

If x[n]  M then y[n]   M 
k 

72 So the system is unstable. May 24, 2025

Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Linear Constant-Coefficient
Difference Equations
 Nth Order Difference Equations
N M

a
k 0
k y (n  k )  bk x(n  k )
k 0

Examples:
Ideal Delay System y (n)  x(n  nd )
1 M
Moving Average y ( n)  
M  1 k 0
x(n  k )

Accumulator y (n)  y (n  1)  x(n)

74 May 24, 2025
 Compute y(n)
N M

a
k 0
k y (n  k )  bk x(n  k )
k 0

N M
ak bk
y (n)   y (n  k )  x(n  k )
k 1 a0 k 0 a0

75 May 24, 2025

 The Ideal Delay System
y (n)  x(n  nd ) h(n) (n  nd )

x(n) Delay Delay ... Delay y(n)

x(n) nd sample delays y(n)=x(n-nd)

76 May 24, 2025

 The Moving Average
1 M
y ( n)  
M  1 k 0
x(n  k )

1 M
h( n)  
M  1 k 0
 (n  k )

1
 u (n)  u (n  M  1)
M 1
1
  (n)   (n  M  1)* u (n)
M 1
77 May 24, 2025
 The Moving Average
1 M
y ( n)  
M  1 k 0
x(n  k )

1
h( n)   (n)   (n  M  1) * u (n)
M 1
x(n Attenuator y(n
) 1 ++ Accumulator )
M 1
_ system

M+1 sample
delay
78 May 24, 2025
Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Frequency-Domain
Representation of
Discrete-Time Signals and
Systems
 Sinusoidal and Complex
Exponential Sequences

 Play an important role in DSP


y ( n)   h( k ) x ( n  k )
k 

x(n) e jn LTI

LTI

  h ( k )e j ( n  k ) 
k 

  
  h(k )e  jk  e jn
h(n)
h(n)  k  

j jn
 H (e )e
80 May 24, 2025
 Frequency Response

H ( e j ) j j n
e j n H (e )e
Eigen value
Eigen function

H ( e j )   h ( k ) e  j k
k 

81 May 24, 2025

 Frequency Response

H (e )   h ( k )e
j  j k

k 

H (e j ) H R (e j )  jH I (e j )

j j H ( e j )
H (e )  | H (e ) | e
Phase
magnitude
82 May 24, 2025
 Example:
The Ideal Delay System

y (n)  x(n  nd ) h(n) (n  nd )

 
H (e j )   h(k )e  jn   (k  nd )e  jn e  jnd
k  k 

Magnitude | H (e j ) |1

Phase H (e j )  nd

83 May 24, 2025

 Example:
The Ideal Delay System

x(n)  A cos(0 n  ) y (n)  A cos[0 (n  nd )  ]

H (e j ) e  jnd
A A A A
x ( n )  e j e j 0 n  e  j  e  j 0 n y ( n )  e j e j 0 n e  j 0 n d  e  j  e  j  0 n e j 0 n d
2 2 2 2
A A
 e j  e j 0 ( n  n d )  e  j e  j  0 ( n  n d )
2 2

84 May 24, 2025

 Periodic Nature of
Frequency Response

H (e j ) H (e j ( 2 m ) )
H ( e j )   h ( k ) e  j k
k  m 0, 1, 2, 

H (e j (  2  )
)   h ( k )e  jk (  2  )

k 

  h(k )e  jk
k 

 H ( e j )
85 May 24, 2025
 Periodic Nature of
Frequency Response

H (e j ) H (e j ( 2 m ) )
H (e j )   h(k )e  jk
k  m 0, 1, 2,

| H ( e j ) |


4 3 2   2 3 4
86 May 24, 2025
 Periodic Nature ofGenerally, we choose
Frequency Response
To represent one period in
frequency domain.
 j j (  2 m )
H (e )  H (e )
H (e )   h( k )e
j  jk

k  m 0,1,2, 

| H ( e j ) |

4 3 2   2 3 4 

87 May 24, 2025
 Periodic Nature of
Frequency Response

H (e j ) H (e j ( 2 m ) )
H (e )   h ( k )e
j  j k

k  m 0, 1, 2, 

| H ( e j ) |

  
High Low High
Frequency Frequency Frequency
88 May 24, 2025
 Ideal Frequency-Selective Filters

| H ( e j ) |
Lowpass Filter 1

 c c  
Highpass Filter | H ( e j ) |
1

 c c  

89 May 24, 2025

 Ideal Frequency-Selective Filters

Bandstop Filter
j
1
| H (e ) |

 b a a b  
Bandpass Filter j
1
| H (e ) |

90
 b a a b  
May 24, 2025
 Moving Average

1 M H (e )   h(k )e  jk
j

y ( n)  
M  1 k 0
x(n  k ) k 

1 M 1  1  e  j( M 1) 
  
 
M  1 k 0
e  jk M 1  1  e  j

1 M
h( n)  
M  1 k 0
 (n  k )
1  e  j( M 1) / 2 (e j( M 1) / 2  e  j( M 1) / 2 ) 
   j / 2 j / 2  j / 2

M 1  e (e e ) 
1   jM / 2 (e j( M 1) / 2  e  j( M 1) / 2 ) 
  e j / 2  j / 2

M 1  (e e ) 
h(n)
1   jM / 2 sin[ ( M  1) / 2] 
0 n 0 M n   e 
M 1  sin(  / 2) 
91 May 24, 2025
 Moving Average
j 1   jM / 2 sin[ ( M  1) / 2] 
H (e )   e 
M 1  sin(  / 2) 

j 1 sin[ ( M  1) / 2]
| H (e ) |
M 1 sin(  / 2)

92 May 24, 2025

 • M=4
• Lowpass
Moving Average • Try larger M

j 1   jM / 2 sin[ ( M  1) / 2] 
H (e )   e 1.5

M 1  1
sin(  / 2) 
0.5

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

j 1 sin[ ( M  1) / 2]
-0.5

| H (e ) |
M 1 sin(  / 2)
1

0.5

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-0.5

-1

93 May 24, 2025

Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Representation of
Sequences by
Fourier Transform
 Fourier Transform Pair
Synthesis
1 
x(n)   X (e j )e jn d Inverse Fourier Transform
2   (IFT)

Analysis
n 
X ( e j )   x ( n ) e  j n Fourier Transform
n 
(FT)

95 May 24, 2025

 1 
Prove x ( n )   X ( e ) e d
j jn

2  
n 
X (e )   x ( n )e
j  j n 

j ( n  m )
n=m e

d 2
n 

1 
x(n)   X (e j )e jn d
2  
1  m 
   x(m)e  jm e jn d
2   m 
1 m  
    e d
2 m 
x ( m ) e  jm jn

1 m  
 
2 m 
x(m)  e j( n  m ) d


96 May 24, 2025

 1 
Prove x ( n )   X ( e ) e d
j jn

2  
n 
X (e )   x ( n )e
j  j n 
nm 
j ( n  m )
e d

n 
1 

j ( n  m )
 e dj(n  m)
1  j ( n  m)  
x(n)   X (e j )e jn d
2   
1
j ( n  m)
 
e j( n  m )  
1  m 
   x(m)e  jm e jn d
2   m 
m 

1
j ( n  m)

e j ( n  m )  e  j  ( n  m ) 
1 
    e d
2 m 
x ( m ) e  jm jn

1
 2 j sin (n  m)
1 m  
j ( n  m)
 
2 m 
x(m)  e j( n  m ) d
 2 sin (n  m)
 0
97 ( n  m)
May 24, 2025
 1 
Prove x ( n )   X ( e ) e d
j jn

2  
n 
X ( e )   x ( n ) e  j n
j

n 

1 
x(n)   X (e j )e jn d
2  
1  m 
   x(m)e  jm e jn d
2   m 


1 m 
   e d
2 m 
x ( m )

e  jm jn
= x(n)
1 m  
 
2 m 
x(m)  e j( n  m ) d


98 May 24, 2025

 Notations
Synthesis Inverse Fourier Transform
1  (IFT)
x ( n)   X ( e j  ) e j  n d
2  
x(n) F -1[ X (e j )]
Analysis
n  Fourier Transform
X ( e j )   x ( n ) e  j n (FT)
j
n 
X (e ) F [ x(n)]
F j
x(n)   X (e )
99 May 24, 2025
 Real and Imaginary Parts

Fourier Transform (FT)

n 
X (e )   x[n]e
j  j n
is a complex-valued function
n 

j j j
X (e )  X R (e )  jX I (e )

100 May 24, 2025

 Magnitude and Phase
j j j
X (e )  X R (e )  jX I (e )

j X ( e j )
X I (e )
Magnitude Phase | X ( e j ) |

X ( e j )

j X R ( e j )
X (e j ) | X (e j ) | e jX ( e )

101 May 24, 2025

Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Symmetry Properties
of Fourier Transform
 Conjugate-Symmetric and
Conjugate-Anti symmetric Sequences

 Conjugate-Symmetric Sequence

* Called an even sequence

xe (n)  x ( n)
e if it is real.

 Conjugate-Antisymmetric Sequence

* Called an odd sequence if

xo (n)  x ( n)
o it is real.

103 May 24, 2025

 Sequence Decomposition
 Any sequence can be expressed as the sum of a
conjugate-symmetric one and a conjugate-
antisymmetric one, i.e.,

x(n)  xe (n)  xo (n)

Conjugate Conjugate
Symmetric Antiymmetric

xe (n)  12 [ x(n)  x * ( n)] xo (n)  12 [ x(n)  x * ( n)]

104 May 24, 2025
 Function Decomposition
 Any function can be expressed as the sum of a
conjugate-symmetric one and a conjugate-
antisymmetric one, i.e.,
j j j
X (e )  X e (e )  X o (e )
Conjugate Conjugate
Symmetric Antiymmetric

X e (e j )  12 [ X (e j )  X * (e  j )] X o (e j )  12 [ X (e j )  X * (e  j )]

105 May 24, 2025

 Conjugate-Symmetric and
Conjugate-Anti symmetric Functions

 Conjugate-Symmetric Function

j *  j Called an even function if

X e (e )  X (e
e ) it is real.

 Conjugate-Antisymmetric Function

j *  j
X o (e )  X (eo ) Called an odd function if
it is real.
106
May 24, 2025
 Symmetric Properties
F j F  j
1. x(n)   X (e ) x( n)   X (e )
 

 x( n)e
n 
 jn
  x ( n ) e j n  X ( e  j  )
n 

magnitude magnitude

   
 phase  phase

 
107
May 24, 2025
 Symmetric Properties
F j F *  j
2. x(n)   X (e ) x * (n)   X (e )
   *

 x * (n)e  j n
  x(n)e 
j n *
  x(n)e jn   X * (e  j )

n  n   n  

magnitude magnitude

   
 phase  phase

 
108 May 24, 2025
 Symmetric Properties
F j F
3. x(n)   X (e ) x * ( n)   X * (e j )
  

 x * ( n)e  j n
  x( n)e    x(n)e   X * (e
j n *  j n * j
)
n  n  n 

magnitude magnitude

   
 phase  phase

 
109 May 24, 2025
 Symmetric Properties
F
x(n)   X (e j )
F j
4. Re{x(n)}   X e (e ) Re{x(n)}  12 [ x(n)  x * (n)]

1
2 [ x(n)  x * (n)] F  12 [ X (e j )  X * (e  j )]

5. j Im{ x(n)} F  X o (e j )

j Im{ x(n)}  12 [ x(n)  x * (n)]
1
2 [ x(n)  x * (n)] F  12 [ X (e j )  X * (e  j )]

110 May 24, 2025

 Symmetric Properties
F
x(n)   X (e j )

6. xe (n) F  X R (e j )
xe (n)  12 [ x(n)  x * ( n)]

1
2 [ x(n)  x * ( n)] F  12 [ X (e j )  X * (e j )]

7. xo ( n) F  jX I (e j )
xo (n)  12 [ x(n)  x * ( n)]
1
2 [ x(n)  x * ( n)] F  12 [ X (e j )  X * (e j )]

111 May 24, 2025

8. Symmetric Properties for
Real Sequence x(n)
F
x(n)   X (e ) j
 F
x * (n)   X (e *  j
)

magnitude
Facts:
1. real part is even X R (e j )  X R (e  j )
j  j
  2. Img. part is odd X I (e )  X I (e )
 phase j  j
|
3. Magnitude is even IX ( e ) || X I ( e )|

4. Phase is odd X (e j )  X (e  j )


112 May 24, 2025
Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Fourier Transform
Properties
 1. Linearity
F j j
a x(n)  b y (n)   a X (e )  b Y (e )
  

 [
n 
ax ( n )  by ( n ) ]e  jn
a  x
n 1
( n ) e  jn
 b  y
n 1
( n ) e  jn

j j
aX (e )  bY (e )

114 May 24, 2025

 2. Time Shifting  Phase Change
F  jnd j
x(n  nd )   e X (e )

F [ x(n  nd )]   x(n  nd )e  jn
n 

  x(n)e  j( n nd )
n 

e  jnd  x
n 
( n )e  jn

 jnd j
e X (e )
115 May 24, 2025
 3. Frequency Shifting Signal Modulation

j 0 n F j (   0 )
e x(n)   X (e )

F [e j0 n x(n)]   e j0 n x(n)e  jn
n 

  x ( n ) e  j (   0 ) n
n 

 X ( e j (   0 ) )
116
May 24, 2025
 4. Time Reversal
F  j
x( n)   X (e )

F [ x( n)]   x( n)e  jn
n 

  x ( n )e  j (  ) n
n 

 X ( e  j )
117
May 24, 2025
 5. Differentiation in Frequency

d F
nx(n)   j X ( e j )
d

F [nx(n)]   nx(n)e  jn
n 
1 
de  jn

 j

n 
x ( n)
d

d d
j 
d n 
x ( n ) e  jn
j
d
X ( e jn )
118 May 24, 2025
 6. The Convolution Theorem

y (n)   x(k )h(n  k ) F  Y (e j )  X (e j ) H (e j )
k 

 
   j ( n  k ) 
F [ y (n)]   y (n)e  j n
 x(k )  h(n)e 
n  k   n  


    jn    jn 
    x(k )h(n  k )  e   x ( k )e  j k
  h ( n )e 
n   k   k   n  


   jn   X ( e j ) H ( e j  )
 x(k )  h(n  k )e 
k   n  
119 May 24, 2025
 7. The Modulation or Windowing Theorem

1 
y (n)  x(n) w(n)   Y (e )   X (e j )W (e j (  ) )d
F j

2  
 1 
Y (e )   w(n) x(n)e
j  jn
  X (e j )W (e j (  ) )d
n  2  
1  
  w(n)  X (e j )e jn d  e  jn

2 n    
1    j (   ) n 
    w(n) X (e )e
j
d
2  n 
 


1  j   j (   ) n 
  X (e )  w(n)e d
120
2  
 n   May 24, 2025
 Parseval’s Theorem

1 

n 
x(n) y * (n)   X (e j )Y * (e j )d
2  

Facts: x(n) F  X (e j )

y * (n) F  Y * (e  j )
1 
y (n)  x(n) w(n)   Y (e )   X (e j )W (e j (  ) )d
F j

2  

1  

n 
x ( n) y * ( n) 
2

n 
  X ( e j
)Y ( e  j (   )
)d

Letting =0, then proven.

121 May 24, 2025
 8. Parseval’s Theorem
Energy Preserving

1 

n 
| x ( n) | 
2
2
  | X ( e j
) |2
d
 

 | x ( n) | 2
  x ( n) x * ( n) 1 
   X ( e j
) X *
( e j
) d
n  n 
2

1 
1
  x * ( n)   X ( e j
) e j n
d 
 j
d
 
2
2 | X ( e ) |
n 
2
1   
j n 

2
  X ( e ) j
 n 
x * ( n )e

d
*
1  j 

 jn 

2
  X ( e ) 
 n 
x ( n )e

d
122 May 24, 2025
 Example: Ideal Lowpass Filter
H ( e j ) 1 c
h(n)   H (e j )e jn d
2   c
1 c jn
  e d
2   c
 1  c jn
  c c  
2 jn c 
e d ( j n )
c
1
j1 for |  | c  e jn
H (e )  2 jn  c

0 for c    sin c n

n
123 May 24, 2025
 Example: Ideal Lowpass Filter

sin c n The ideal lowpass filter

h( n)  n 0,1,2, 
n Is noncausal.

0.6

0.4

0.2

-0.2
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
124 May 24, 2025
 Example: Ideal Lowpass Filter

sin c n TheToideal lowpass fileter

approximate the
h( n)  n 0,1,2, 
n Is noncausal.
ideal lowpass filter
using a window.
0.6

0.4
sin c n  jn
M
H (e )  
j
e
0.2
n  M n
0

-0.2
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
125 May 24, 2025
 Example: Ideal Lowpass Filter
2
M=3
1

-1
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
2
M=5
1
M
sin c n  jn
H (e )  
j 0
e
n  M n -1
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
2
M=19
1

-1
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
126 May 24, 2025
Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Existence of Fourier
Transform
 Key Issue Does X(ej) exist
for all ?

Synthesis
1 
x ( n )   X ( e j  ) e j  n d
2  
We need that |
Analysis X(ej)| <  for all 

X ( e j )   x ( n ) e  j n
n 

128 May 24, 2025

 Sufficient Condition for Convergence

 | x(n) | 
n 
| X (e j ) |  for all 
 
j
| X (e ) |   x ( n)e
n 
 jn
  | x ( n)e
n 
 jn
|

  | x
n 
( n ) || e  jn
|

  | x ( n) |  
n 
129 May 24, 2025
 More On Convergence
M
 Define X M ( e j )   x ( n ) e  jn
n  M

 Uniform Convergence
lim | X (e j )  X M (e j ) |0
M

 Mean-Square Convergence


j j 2
lim | X ( e )  X M ( e ) | 0
M  
130 May 24, 2025
Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Important Transform
Pairs
 Fourier Transform Pairs
Sequence Fourier Transform
1. (n) 1

2. (n  nd ) e  j n d
1
3. n
a u ( n) (| a | 1)
1  ae  j

1
4. u (n)  j
  (  2k )
1  ae k 

1
5. n
(n  1)a u (n)
(1  ae  j ) 2
132 May 24, 2025
 Fourier Transform Pairs

Sequence Fourier Transform

r n sin  p (n  1) 1
7. u (n) (| r | 1)
sin  p 1  2r cos  p e  j  r 2 e  2 j

sin c n j1 |  | c
8. X (e ) 
n 0 c |  |

1 0 n M sin[ ( M  1) / 2]  jM / 2
9. x(n)  e
0 otherwise sin(  / 2)
133 May 24, 2025
 Fourier Transform Pairs

Sequence Fourier Transform


10. e j n
0
 2(  
k 
0  2k)

11. cos(0 n  )   [e j (  0  2k )  e  j (  0  2k )]

k 

134 May 24, 2025