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4.2.1 Sampling Techniques (Questions and MS)

The document outlines various sampling techniques used to measure biodiversity in habitats, emphasizing the importance of both random and non-random sampling methods. It explains the significance of sampling for estimating species abundance and distribution, as well as the potential biases that can arise from sampling. Additionally, it details specific methods such as quadrats, transects, and tools for measuring abiotic factors to enhance ecological studies.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
18 views164 pages

4.2.1 Sampling Techniques (Questions and MS)

The document outlines various sampling techniques used to measure biodiversity in habitats, emphasizing the importance of both random and non-random sampling methods. It explains the significance of sampling for estimating species abundance and distribution, as well as the potential biases that can arise from sampling. Additionally, it details specific methods such as quadrats, transects, and tools for measuring abiotic factors to enhance ecological studies.

Uploaded by

talhaibnealam
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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4.2.

1
BIODIVERSITY
(S AMPLING
TECHNIQUES)
[email protected]
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Learners should be able to demonstrate and apply their knowledge
of:
(B) How sampling is used in measuring the biodiversity of a habitat and the
importance of sampling
• Practical investigations collecting random and non-random samples in the
field
• To include how sampling can be carried out i.e. random sampling and non-
random sampling (e.g. opportunistic, stratified and systematic) and the
importance of sampling the range of organisms in a habitat. Techniques
including: use of sweeping nets, pitfall traps, pooters, Tullgren funnel and
kick‑sampling for collecting different samples. M0.2, M1.3, M1.5, M1.4,
M1.6, M1.7, M1.9, M1.10, M3.2 PAG3 HSW4, HSW5, HSW6
THE IMPORTANCE OF SAMPLING IN
MEASURING THE BIODIVERSITY OF A
HABITAT

• Impossible or difficult to count every individual in the habitat (counting


every individual is too time consuming).
• Sample provides an estimate of whole organisms in the habitat
• Sample representative (of whole area).
• There is need to study the impact of human activity on the environment, in
order to minimise disruption to the environment and conserve resources
RELIABILITY
• Sampling bias: the selection may be by accident. You can choose to sample
a particular area that has more flowers because area that has more flowers
because it looks interesting. However you use random sampling and reduce
the human involvement.

• Chance: never can be removed form the process, but can be minimised by
using a larger sample size. The larger the sample size  the more reliable
the result.
SAMPLING
• A sample is biased if it does not represent the population as a whole (for
example, if you were looking at the average height of students in a school
but only measured the heights of people from one particular class, the
sample would be biased).

Bias is the tendency of a


statistic to overestimate
or underestimate a
parameter.
SAMPLING
• Sampling means taking measurements of a limited number of individual
organisms represent in a particular area.
• Ecologists need to identify and count the number of organisms present in
an area to find out about their distribution and the biodiversity of the area.
• It may not be possible to count all the individual in a population.
• An area of habitat to be sampled is chosen and appropriate sampling
method.
• A sample of the population in a particular habitat is taken  no every
individual organisms.
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
• When studying ecosystems, you may need to find out:
– what species live there
– their distribution
– their relative abundance
• To identify, count and record every single species within
a habitat is impractical so it is necessary to sample
– random sampling using frame or point quadrats
– sampling along transects
QUADRATS AND SAMPLING
• Quadrats are sampling frames that define an area within which you
survey the plants or sedentary animals that are present
– it is usually square, but can be circular or rectangular
• Depending upon size, it can be marked out by tapes (woodland) or
a simple metal or wood frame
• Quadrat sampling is useful where the area is relatively uniform and
should result in samples which are representative of the larger
study area
• When using quadrats you should consider:
– size
– number used
– where and how they are placed
QUADRAT SIZE
• The size is determined
partly by:
– a pilot study
– size of the organisms
sampled
• Plot number of species
found against quadrat size
• Above a certain size very
few new species are
included
– this is the optimum quadrat
size for this habitat
PREPARATION FOR
SAMPLING
PLANNING:
• Suitable clothing and footwear
• Apparatus needed to carry out the sampling
• Clipboard, pen and paper to record your observations
• Appropriate keys to identify plants (do not record several plant as one, if
you can not identify the plant during sampling, take a photographs and
identify later).
• Camara or Smartphone to record specimens and grid location.
More quadrats =

RANDOM OR NON-RANDOM more


representative
(more reliable)
ALL THE SAMPLING HAS
RANDOM SAMPLING TO BE STANDARDISED
• RS means selecting individuals by chance. Each individual in the populaion
has an equal likelihood of selection. You can also make
sure your samples
• To avoid bias in your results, the sample should be random.
are random and
STEPS FOR RANDOM SAMPLING: accurate by taking
samples at
1. Mark out a grid on the grass using 2 tape measures laid at different
right angles.
times of
2. Use random number to determine the x and y coordinate on the daygrid.
your and in
different weather
3. Take a sample at each of the coordinate pairs generated. condictions

Use random
sampling when
you are looking
at plant species
in a field.
More quadrats =

RANDOM OR NON-RANDOM more


representative
(more reliable)
ALL THE SAMPLING HAS
RANDOM SAMPLING TO BE STANDARDISED
• RS means selecting individuals by chance. Each individual in the populaion
has an equal likelihood of selection.
• To avoid bias in your results, the sample should be random.
STEPS FOR RANDOM SAMPLING:
1. Mark out a grid on the grass using 2 tape measures laid at right angles.
2. Use random number to determine the x and y coordinate on your grid.
3. Take a sample at each of the coordinate pairs generated.

• Quadrats can be placed with the


sampling point
• at the left hand corner post (as
here)
• at the centre of the quadrat
• Consistency is what matters!
PAPER QUESTIONS
RANDOM OR NON-RANDOM
NON-RANDOM SAMPLING
• NRS: is an alternative sampling method where the sample is not chosen at
random.
• There are a lot of variety in the distribution of species and you want to
make sure all the different areas are sampled.
• Systematic sampling avoid bias.
• There are three types of non-random sample:
1. SYSTEMATIC: different areas within an overall habitat are identified. In
order to studey how plants species change as you move inland from sea
( specific pattern in the ecosystem).
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
Line transect
Sample everything that touches
Interrupted line transect the line. Feasible where there
Sample at intervals (e.g. aren’t too many organisms (e.g.
every 1m) rocky shore or sand dune)

Belt transect
Quadrats placed in a continuous
line along the transect. Feasible
 over short distances

Interrupted belt or ladder


transect
Quadrat placed at intervals (e.g.
every 1m) along the transect. A good
RANDOM OR NON-RANDOM
NON-RANDOM SAMPLING
• NRS: is an alternative sampling method where the sample is not chosen at
random.
• There are a lot of variety in the distribution of species and you want to
make sure all the different areas sampled.
• There are three types of non-random sample:
2. STRATIFIED: this is when different areas in a habitat are identified and
sampled separately in proportion to their part of the habitat as a whole.
RANDOM OR NON-RANDOM
NON-RANDOM SAMPLING
• NRS: is an alternative sampling method where the sample is not chosen at
random.
• There are a lot of variety in the distribution of species and you want to
make sure all the different areas sampled.
• There are three types of non-random sample:
3. OPPORTUNISTIC: the samples are chosen by the investigator  the
data will be biased. Using organisms that are conveniently available.
RANDOM OR NON-RANDOM
SAMPLING PROCEDURE
1. Choose an area to sample and appropriate sampling method is used.
2. Record the number of species or count the number of individuals of each
species.
3. Repeat the process (take as many samples as possible)  this give a
better indication of the whole habitat. All the samples should be chosen in
the same way as your first sample  random or non-random.
4. The number individuals for the whole habitat can then be estimated by
calculating the mean for the data collected in each sample and
multiplying it by the size of the whole habitat. Use the results to estimate
the total number of individuals or the total number of different species in
the habitat being studied.
5. When sampling different habitats and comparing them, always use the
same sampling techniques.
ABUNDANCE AND
DISTRIBUTION
ABUNDANCE: is the number of individuals of one species in a particular area.
This can be measured in a number of ways:
– Density
• the number per unit area
– Frequency (percentage frequency)
• the percentage of quadrats in which the species was present
– Percentage cover
• the percentage of the ground area that contained the species
DISTRIBUTION: is where a particular species is within the area you are investigating.
The distribution is determinated by the mix of environmental factors (biotic and
abiotic)
Biotic
– factor caused by a living organism, e.g. grazing, predation, disease
Abiotic
– non-living factors such as light, temperature, O2 and/or CO2 concentration, soil (edaphic)
conditions
PAPER QUESTIONS
SAMPLING METHODS
(PLANTS)
QUADRATS
Used mainly for sampling plants in relatively uniform terrestrial habitats
(grasslands)  non-motile
FRAME QUADRAT
• A square metal, wooden or plastic frame, divide into equal sized subsection
with string or wire.
• The quadrat is laid on the habitat surface.
• The total number of species in the frame and the number of individual of each
species is recorded.
• To obtain representative results, a larger number of random sample need to be
taken.
SAMPLING METHODS
(ABUNDANCE)
QUADRATS
ALL THE SAMPLING HAS
Place the quadrats at random. TO BE STANDARDISED
STEPS FOR RANDOM SAMPLING:
1. Mark out a grid on the grass using 2 tape measures laid at right angles.
2. Use random number to determine the x and y coordinate on your grid.
3. Take a sample at each of the coordinate pairs generated.
SAMPLING METHODS
(ABUNDANCE)
SAMPLING METHODS
(ABUNDANCE)
PAPER QUESTIONS
SAMPLING METHODS
(ABUNDANCE)
QUADRATS
Used mainly for sampling plants in relatively uniform terrestrial habitats
(grasslands).
FRAME QUADRAT (DENSITY)
If individual large plants can be seen clearly, count the number of them in a 1
m square quadrat  density per square metre. ALL THE SAMPLING HAS
TO BE STANDARDISED
PAPER QUESTIONS
PAPER QUESTIONS
PAPER QUESTIONS
PAPER QUESTIONS
PAPER QUESTIONS
PAPER QUESTIONS
SAMPLING METHODS
(ABUNDANCE)
QUADRATS
ALL THE SAMPLING HAS
TO BE STANDARDISED

Used mainly for sampling plants in relatively uniform terrestrial habitats


(grasslands). Counting how much of the
quadrat is covered by the species
FRAME QUADRAT (PERCENTAGE COVER) (you can count one square if it is
more than half-covered)
It is useful for quick way to
investigate the population.
PAPER QUESTIONS
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SAMPLING METHODS ALL THE
(ABUNDANCE)
QUADRATS
SAMPLING HAS
Used mainly for sampling plants in relatively uniform terrestrial habitats
TO BE
(grasslands). STANDARDISED
FRAME QUADRAT (FREQUENCY)
• Frequency: in an habitat where is difficult to count the number of species
(grass, moss, so on). Small grids within a quadrat, count the number of
square a particular species is present in.
SAMPLING METHODS
(ABUNDANCE)
FRAME QUADRAT (FREQUENCY)
• Frequency: in an habitat where is difficult to count the number of species
(grass, moss, so on). Small grids within a quadrat, count the number of
square a particular species is present in.
COMPARING THE SPECIES DIVERSITY OF
TWO DIFFERENT SITES USING RANDOM
SAMPLING
COMPARING THE SPECIES DIVERSITY OF
TWO DIFFERENT SITES USING RANDOM
SAMPLING
SAMPLING METHODS
(ABUNDANCE)
QUADRATS
ALL THE SAMPLING HAS
TO BE STANDARDISED
Used mainly for sampling plants in relatively uniform
terrestrial habitats (grasslands).
POINT QUADRAT
A horizontal wooden bar on two legs, with holes in it
at regular intervals

Pins are dropped through holes in this frame and


every plant that each pin hits is recorded – if a pin
hits several overlapping plants, all of them are
recorded and also bare ground.

A tape measure is laid along the area of study and


the quadrat is placed regular intervals at a right
angle to the tape.

• Point quadrats are used especially where


vegetation is dense and low
• The number of touches is proportional to the
percentage cover.
SAMPLING METHODS
(ABUNDANCE)
Estimate the percentage cover by completing the table:
SAMPLING METHODS
(DISTRIBUTION)
LINE AND BELT TRANSECTS
ALL THE SAMPLING HAS
TO BE STANDARDISED
A transect is a line along which sample are taken. It is used where there is an
environmental gradient and species vary.
LINE TRANSECTS:
A tape measure is placed along the transect and the species that touch the tape
measure at set intervals are recorded. It gives an idea of distribution , but gives
no idea of abundance
SAMPLING METHODS
(DISTRIBUTION)
QUADRATS
Used mainly for sampling plants in relatively uniform terrestrial habitats
(grasslands).
LINE AND BELT TRANSECTS
A transect is a line along which sample are taken. It is used where there is an
ALL THE SAMPLING HAS
environmental gradient and species vary.
TO BE STANDARDISED
BELT TRANSECTS
A line of quadrats (frame or line) is used to sample an area where there is
transition (change) – e.g. across a pond or from low to high tide on a sea shore.
A belt transect gives both distribution and abundance.
SAMPLING METHODS
(DISTRIBUTION)
QUADRATS
Used mainly for sampling plants in relatively uniform terrestrial habitats
(grasslands).
LINE AND BELT TRANSECTS
A transect is a line along which sample are taken. It is used where there is an
environmental gradient and species vary.
INTERRUPTED TRANSECTS
Instead of investigating the whole transect of either a line or a belt, you can take
measurements at intervals.
Placing quadrats every 2 meters, for example.
EQUIPMENT FOR MEASURE ABIOTIC
FACTORS
• Tensiometer: measure soil moisture tension, therefore types
• Densitometer: measure soil density
of soil Tensiometer
Densitometer

• pH meter: measure the pH therefore the nutrients in the soil.


• Photometer: measure the light intensity.
• Hygrometer: measure the humidity pH meter

• Thermometer: measure the temperature


• Anemometer: measure the wind
• Electrical conductivity meter: salinity
Hygrometer:
Anemometer
Thermometer
Photometer
SAMPLING METHODS
(DISTRIBUTION)
SYSTEMATIC TRANSECTS
PAPER QUESTIONS
PAPER QUESTIONS
PAPER QUESTIONS
PAPER QUESTIONS
PAPER QUESTIONS
PAPER QUESTIONS
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PAPER QUESTIONS
SPECIES DISTRIBUTION
CASE STUDY: ZONATION OF ALGAE ON A
ROCKY SHORE
• Zonation of algae on rocky shores is evident
– transects can be laid from high tide to low tide
– percentage cover or some other measure made
– plot as kite diagrams
• Amongst the brown algae:
Pelvetia canaliculata  Fucus spiralis  F. vesiculosus  F. serratus
(in order from top of shore towards the low tide mark)
• Can the distribution be explained?
DISTRIBUTION OF ALGAE ON
A ROCKY SHORE
Distribution can be determined using transects from high to low tide:
Quadrat 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Pelvetia
canaliculata
Fucus spiralis

F. vesiculosus

F. serratus

Rocky shore – Heysham, Lancashire


DISTRIBUTION OF ALGAE ON
A ROCKY SHORE
• Distribution is determined by the mix of biotic and abiotic factors on the
organisms of the ecosystem
• The algal distribution on the rocky shore can be explained by tolerance to
dehydration or desiccation
– algae are exposed to the sun and drying winds when the tide is out
– those at the top of the shore are exposed for longer than those at the bottom of
the shore
• Tolerance to desiccation
P. canaliculata > F. spiralis > F. vesisculosus > F. serratus
USING SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING TO INVESTIGATE THE
EFFECT OF TRAMPLING ON PLANT SPECIES
DISTRIBUTION
USING SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING TO INVESTIGATE THE
EFFECT OF TRAMPLING ON PLANT SPECIES
DISTRIBUTION

A random number generator is used to give the


position of the transect in order to avoid bias
A transect is used because the study requires
students to look at the change along a gradient
(highly trampled to less trampled)
Data could have been made more reliable
by repeating the experiment in at least 2
further transect positions (selected
randomly) and a mean for each species
taken at each quadrat site, leaving out any
anomalies
A statistical test (Spearman´s rank correlation)
could also be performed, and the study could
be repeated by someone else to see if they get
a similar pattern of results.
USING SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING TO INVESTIGATE THE
EFFECT OF TRAMPLING ON PLANT SPECIES
DISTRIBUTION
QUESTIONS
ANSWER
PAPER QUESTIONS
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PATTERNS OF DISTRIBUTION

• In natural systems, three types of distribution are generally recognised:


– uniform
– clumped or aggregated
– random
• Often it is resource availability that determines the distribution
UNIFORM DISTRIBUTION
• Organisms are evenly spaced
with the distance maximised
between individuals
• Competition for a scare resource
– territory
• birds
– water
• cacti and creosote bush
• roots may release chemical that
prevents growth of competitors
• Plantation forestry and
agriculture often produce
uniform distributions

The robin fights for territory


CLUMPED OR AGGREGATED
DISTRIBUTION
• Organisms are close together
and the distance between them
is minimised
• Patchy resource can explain
distribution
– organisms are common where a
resource is present
– predators are often present
where their prey is abundant
– prey organisms often grouped
where they can hide from or
detect predators

Mole ‘tumps’ where their prey is


present
RANDOM DISTRIBUTION
• Found where
– the environment is uniform and
– there is little or no competition
for a resource
– otherwise a clumped or a
uniform distribution would be
found
• Some organisms are randomly
dispersed (spread), so their
distribution may be random, e.g.
– dandelion seeds and
– shellfish larvae

Dandelion seed head


PAPER QUESTIONS
HOW TO DRAW A KITE
DIAGRAM
1. Calculate population density per metre2 for the chosen
organisms. 50cm2 quadrats were used.

Quadr Barnacl Densit Mussel Densit Chiton Densit


at e y y y
Numb (numb (numb (numb
er er/m2) er/m2) er/m2)
2m 0 0 0
4m 0 16 1
6m 4 17 2
8m 6 8 6
10m 20 4 7
12m 26 0 2
14m 18 0 0
HOW TO DRAW A KITE
DIAGRAM
1. Calculate population density per metre2 for the chosen
organisms. 50cm2 quadrats were used.

Quadr Barnacl Densit Mussel Densit Chiton Densit


at e y y y
Numb (numb (numb (numb
er er/m2) er/m2) er/m2)
2m 0 0 0 0 0 0
4m 0 0 16 64 1 4
6m 4 16 17 68 2 8
8m 6 24 8 32 6 24
10m 20 80 4 16 7 28
12m 26 104 0 0 2 8
14m 18 72 0 0 0 0
INSTRUCTIONS FOR
CONSTRUCTING A KITE DIAGRAM…
1) You will need to use a whole page of graph paper and turn it
horizontally
2) Write a suitable title and include date and site at the top of your page.
3) x-axis (horizontal) = sample sites distances from high tide
y-axis (vertical) = species names
4) Divide the y-axis into three equal parts. Draw a line through the
middle of each, parallel to the horizontal axis. These will be the baselines
(equal to 0) .
5)Scan your data to find the highest density value. Divide this in half.
6) Make a scale on your y-axis above and below each baseline that will
cover this value.
7) Divide the rest of the data in half and plot points above and below the
baseline with an x. Mark O’s on the baseline with an x. Join the points
above and below each baseline with a ruler and the same underneath.
Shade each ‘kite’.
A BAD KITE DIAGRAM –
WHAT IS WRONG?
Title does not
contain much Some of the
detail. No mention kites are
of where site is or open ended
date samples are – should be
taken. closed off at
end.

Does not give distances


from start point or units of
distance
KITE DIAGRAM
PAPER QUESTIONS
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SAMPLING METHODS
(ANIMALS)
ALL THE SAMPLING HAS
FLYING INSECTS / INSECT IN VEGETATION TO BE STANDARDISED
When you sweep the net through the vegetation in wide arc and
small animals will be caught in the net. Then you can empty the
content on to a white sheet to identify them. Some of them crawl
or fly away as son as you release them fron the SWEEP
net. YouNET
can use
a pooter, before they fly away.
POOTER

STANDARDISED of SWEEP NET: same type of


movement / same length of time / same
number of sweeps.
Pooter can be used to collecting from trees. Sample at different times of, day / month /
PAPER QUESTIONS
SAMPLING METHODS
(ANIMALS)
GROUND INSECTS / INSECT IN VEGETATION
ALL THE SAMPLING HAS
TO BE STANDARDISED
In a TULLGREN FUNNEL, a light above the litter drives the
animals downwards as the litter dries out and warms up. They fall
through the mesh screen to be collected in a jar underneath the
funnel with alcohol. Also a ultraviolet light can be used to attract
a TULLGREN
night flying insect.
FUNNEL

Standardised: same
meteorological conditions
when caught soil, the same
amount of soil collected each
time,
SAMPLING METHODS
(ANIMALS)
GROUND ANIMALS
PITFALL TRAP: is a trap set in the soil to catch small animals. It consists of a small container buried in the soil so that its rim is jut
below the surface.
Any animal moving through the plants or leaf litter on the soil surface will fall into the container.
The container should contain a little water to stop the animals crawling out again.

A large number of traps makes the results more reliable and minimises the effects of unusual results
ALL THE SAMPLING HAS
TO BE STANDARDISED

Standardised: the same


area of trap, if it is filled
with alcohol  all the trap
should be filled up, same
length of time, sample at
different times of, day /
month / year / weather
conditions.
SAMPLING METHODS
(ANIMALS)
FRESHWATER ANIMALS
KICK SAMPLING:
It is a standard and widely used method for sampling the invertebrates living on the bed of a stream or river.
It involves placing a net in the direction of flow, with open net mouth facing upstream and the surrounding substrate disturbed
by kicking.

ALL THE SAMPLING HAS


TO BE STANDARDISED

Standardised: same
time spent of kicking,the
same speed of kicking,
the same number of
kicks, the same mesh
size, distance from the
net has to be the same,
ESTIMATING ANIMAL
POPULATION SIZE (LINCOLN
INDEX)
CAPTURE- RECAPTURE (mark release).
1. Capture: setting up traps to capture the animals
2. Marking: paint or dye, India ink, color band, (birds) micro chips (large
mammls), toe clipping (reptiles, amphibians and rodents).
3. Capturing another sample of individuals.

The estimate calculated can be affected


by animals that learn that the trap is
harmless and contains food or do not like
the experience and therefore keep away
SPECIES EVENNESS -
•ANIMALS
Count individuals
or use mark and
recapture method.

Mark individuals and


release. = C1 After period of
time catch new
sample = C2
Catch a sample of
Count number
animals eg using
of marked
sweep net
individuals =
C3
Total population = (6x6)/4 = 9
QUESTIONS
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ILUSTRATING SPECIES
RICHNESS AND EVENNESS.
Two different fields of
wildflowers
Field Field 2
1. Fields 1 and 2 have the same richness (3 species) 1
and the same total number of individuals Daisies 300 20
2. Field 1 has more species evenness than field 2 ( the
field 1 is quite evenly distributed between species). Dandelions 335 49
3. In field 1, the total number of individuals is quite
evenly distributed between the three species – Buttercups 365 931
there is less variation between the population sizes
of each species TOTAL 1000 1000
4. But, in field 2, most of the individuals are
buttercups, with only a few daisies and dandelions
5. Field 2 is less diverse; field 1 is more diverse
ILUSTRATING SPECIES
The greater the species richness and
RICHNESS AND EVENNESS. species evenness in an area, the higher
the biodiversity

• Both communities have the same species richness


• 4 species in each
• Community 2 has less evenness
• Therefore, community 2 is less diverse than community 1
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