Process Dynamics

BS Chemical Engineering (2020-24)

Spring 2023

Analysis of Dynamic Model

by:
Dr. Aitazaz Hassan
Senior Engineer
Department of Chemical Engineering
Books:
1) Principles and practice of automatic process control, 2 nd Ed., Carlos
A. Smith & A. B. Corripio
2) Process dynamics, modeling and control, B. A. Ogunnaike & W. H. Ray
3) Process control: modeling, design and simulation, B. Wayne Bequette
1
COURSE CONTENTS (PROCESS DYNAMICS)

Basic elements of dynamic analysis: Tools for dynamic analysis, Laplace Transform,
Forcing functions, Formulating process models, State-space models, Transform-
domain models, Frequency-response models, Impulse-response models, Transfer
functions. Dynamic behavior of linear low order-systems: Response of first-order
systems to various inputs, Pure gain systems, Pure capacity systems, Lead/Lag system:
Dynamic behavior of linear higher order systems, two first order systems in series,
Second order systems. Use of MATLAB and SIMULINK for solution of dynamic
systems. Inverse-response systems: Examples of physical processes, Dynamic
behavior of systems with single right-half plane zeros. Time-delay systems: Pure time
delay systems, Dynamic behavior of systems with time delay. Use of MATLAB and
SIMULINK for the solution of inverse-response and time-delay dynamic system.
Open loop stability. Frequency-response analysis. Process identification: Principles of
empirical modeling, Step-response identification, Impulse-response identification. Use
of MATLAB for process identification.

2
3
 Laplace Transformation
• Laplace transformation creates transfer functions
• Algebraic equations instead of linear DEs
• Linear DEs called state space models
Equation Classification
Linear
Linear
Non-linear, is not a first power
Non-linear, is not a first power
Non-linear, sin(x) is not a first power
Non-linear, is not multiplied by a
constant
Linear
Non-linear, is not multiplied by a
constant
Linear in x
4
Linear in x
 Laplace Transformation
LT of a time-domain function, f(t), is represented by L[f(t)]

∞
𝑳 [ 𝑪 . 𝒇 ( 𝒕 ) ] =𝑪 . 𝑭 ( 𝒔 )=𝑪 .∫ 𝒇 (𝒕 ) 𝒆
− 𝒔𝒕
𝒅𝒕
𝟎

5
6
 Laplace Transformation
• Derivatives: 𝑳 [ 𝒅𝒇 (𝒕 )
𝒅𝒕 ]=𝒔𝑭 ( 𝒔 ) − 𝒇 (𝟎)

For an nth derivative:

𝑳 [
𝒅𝒏 𝒇 (𝒕 )
𝒅𝒕 ]
=𝒔𝒏 𝑭 ( 𝒔 ) − 𝒔 𝒏 −𝟏 𝒇 ( 𝟎 ) − 𝒔 𝒏 −𝟐 𝒇 ′ ( 𝟎 ) −… − 𝒇 (𝒏 −𝟏 ) (𝟎)

n initial conditions are needed: f(0), f'(0),…,f(n-1)(0)

• Time delay (Dead time), :

𝑳 [ 𝒇 (𝒕 − 𝜽 ) ] = 𝒆
−𝒔𝜽
𝑭 (𝒔)

7
 Laplace Transformation
• Unit step functions:

{
𝒖 ( 𝒕 ) = 𝟎 𝒕 <𝟎
𝟏𝒕 ≥𝟎

|
∞ −𝒔𝒕 ∞
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑳 [ 𝒖 (𝒕) ]=∫ 𝒖 ( 𝒕 ) 𝒆 𝒅𝒕=− 𝒆 =− ( 𝟎−𝟏)=
−𝒔𝒕

𝟎 𝒔 𝟎 𝒔 𝒔
• Pulse functions:

{
𝒇 ( 𝒕 )= 𝟎 𝒕 < 𝟎 , 𝒕 ≥ 𝑻
𝑯 𝟎≤ 𝒕<𝑻

∞
𝑯 (
𝑳 [ 𝒇 (𝒕 ) ] =∫ 𝒇 ( 𝒕 ) 𝒆− 𝒔𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟏 − 𝒆 − 𝒔𝑻 )
𝟎 𝒔

8
 Laplace Transformation
• A unit impulse functions:
• Dirac delta function,
• Ideal pulse with zero duration & unit area
• All area is concentrated at time zero

{
𝜹 ( 𝒕 ) = 𝟏 𝒕 =𝟎
𝟎 𝒕 >𝟎
∞
𝑳 [ 𝜹(𝒕 ) ] =∫ 𝜹 ( 𝒕 ) 𝒆
− 𝒔𝒕
𝒅𝒕 =𝟏
𝟎

• Short or injection of a drug into a

physiological system
• Dumping a bucket of fluid or bag of
solids into a chemical reactor

9
 Laplace Transformation
• A sine wave of unity amplitude and frequency :
𝒊 𝝎𝒕 −𝒊 𝝎 𝒕
𝒆 −𝒆
sin 𝝎 𝒕 =
𝟐𝒊
∞ 𝒊 𝝎𝒕 −𝒊 𝝎 𝒕
𝒆 −𝒆 𝝎
𝑳 [ sin 𝝎 𝒕 ] =∫
− 𝒔𝒕
𝒆 𝒅𝒕= 𝟐 𝟐
𝟎 𝟐𝒊 𝒔 +𝝎

Find the relations of Laplace for

various functions from Literature

10
 Properties of Laplace Transformation
• Linearity
• Real differentiation theorem
• Real integration theorem
• Real translation theorem (time delay)
• Complex translation theorem
• Complex differentiation theorem
• Final value theorem
• Initial value theorem

Linearity
• Additivity: f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y).
• Homogeneity of degree 1: f(αx) = α f(x) for all
α 11
 Properties of Laplace Transformation
• Linearity Real integration theorem

• Real differentiation theorem

• Real integration theorem
• Real translation theorem (time delay)
• Complex translation theorem Complex translation theorem
• Complex differentiation theorem
• Final value theorem
• Initial value theorem Complex differentiation theorem

12
 Properties of Laplace Transformation
• Final value theorem • Initial value theorem
• Long term behavior • Initial behavior
• Final, steady-state, value of • To calculate the initial value of
function from its transform a function from its transform
• Useful in checking the validity of • Another check of the validity
derived transforms of derived transforms
• Only hold for stable systems • Only hold for stable systems

13
APPLICATION OF IV AND FV
THEOREMS\S

14
 Transfer Functions

• A transfer function relates inputs to outputs in the Laplace domain

• Consider an nth order differential equation,
𝒏 𝒏 −𝟏 𝒏 −𝟏
𝒅 𝒚 𝒅 𝒚 𝒅 𝒙
𝒏
+ 𝒂𝒏− 𝟏 𝒏 −𝟏
+ …+ 𝒂𝟎 𝒚 =𝒃𝒏 −𝟏 𝒏− 𝟏
+…+ 𝒃𝟎 𝒙
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
• Based on deviation variables, the system is initially at SS, initial
conditions are

| |
𝒏 −𝟐
𝒏 −𝟏
𝒅 𝒚 𝒅 𝒙 ( 𝟎)
=…= 𝒚 ( 𝟎 )= =…=𝒙 ( 𝟎 )=𝟎
𝒅𝒕𝒏 − 𝟏 𝒕=𝟎 𝒅𝒕 𝒏−𝟐
𝒕 =𝟎

[ ]
𝒅𝒏 𝒚
|
𝒏− 𝟏
𝒏 𝒏− 𝟏 𝒅 𝒚
𝑳 =𝒔 𝒀 ( 𝒔 ) − 𝒔 𝒚 ( 𝟎 ) −… − =𝒔𝒏 𝒀 (𝒔)
𝒅 𝒕𝒏 𝒅𝒕𝒏 −𝟏 𝒕= 𝟎

𝑳
[ ]
𝒅𝒏− 𝟏 𝒙
𝒅𝒕
𝒏−𝟏
𝒏−𝟏 𝒏−𝟐 𝒅 𝒏−𝟐 𝒖
= 𝒔 𝑿 ( 𝒔 ) − 𝒔 𝒙 ( 𝟎 ) −…− 𝒏−𝟐 =𝒔 𝑿 (𝒔)
𝒅𝒕 𝒕 =𝟎
𝒏−𝟏
| 16
 Transfer Functions
𝒏 −𝟏
𝒃𝒏 − 𝟏 𝒔 +…+ 𝒃𝟎
𝒀 ( 𝒔 )= 𝒏 𝒏 −𝟏
. 𝑿 (𝒔)
𝒔 +𝒂 𝒏 −𝟏 𝒔 +… +𝒂 𝟎
• The ratio of polynomials is called the TF.
• When it relates a manipulated input to an output it is commonly
called a process TF.
• In general, we will use gp(s) to represent the process TF

𝑌 ( 𝑠 )=𝑔 𝑝 ( 𝑠 ) 𝑿(𝑠)
𝑛 −1
𝑏𝑛 −1 𝑠 +…+ 𝑏0
𝑔𝑝 ( 𝑠) = 𝑛 𝑛 −1
𝑠 +𝑎 𝑛 −1 𝑠 +… +𝑎 0
• The roots of the numerator polynomial are known as zero, and the
roots of the denominator polynomial are call poles.

x(s)
17
 Characterization of Process Response
• So far, Y(s) = TF (-xtics of process)*U(s)
• Now, to relate xtics of response of output variable to the
parameters of the process TF (i.e., roots of denominator)

Some important questions:

• Is the response stable?
• If stable, what will be its final steady-state value?
• Is the response monotonic or oscillatory?
• If monotonic and stable, how long will it take for the transients to die out?
• If oscillatory, what is the period of oscillation and how long will it take for
the oscillation to die out?

We can answer all these questions from the parameters of the

transfer function of the system
18
 Characterization of Process Response
Deviation variables
• Response of the output variable is also affected by initial
conditions
• Response of processes & their control systems to the input
variables (d, u)
• Eliminate the effect of initial conditions on the response
• Assume, initial conditions at steady state, Initial value of output ?
• Output variable as deviation variable

𝑌 ( 𝒕 )=𝒚 ( 𝒕 ) − 𝒚 (𝟎) Initial value of deviation

variable is always zero

𝒅 𝒀 (𝒕) 𝒅 [ 𝒚 ( 𝒕 ) − 𝒚 (𝟎) ] 𝒅 𝒚 (𝒕)

𝒌 𝒌 𝒌
𝒀 (𝒔 )
= = =𝑻𝑭
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝑿 (𝒔 ) 19
20
 Characterization of Process Response
Output response
• LT of nth order DE in deviation variables:
𝒎 𝒎− 𝟏
𝒃 𝒎 𝒔 + 𝒃𝒎 −𝟏 𝒔 + …+ 𝒃𝟎
𝒀 ( 𝒔 )= 𝒏 𝒏 −𝟏
. 𝑿 (𝒔)
𝒂𝒏 𝒔 + 𝒂 𝒏 −𝟏 𝒔 +…+ 𝒂 𝟎
𝒎 𝒎 −𝟏
𝒃𝒎 𝒔 +𝒃𝒎 −𝟏 𝒔 +…+ 𝒃𝟎
𝒀 ( 𝒔 )= . 𝑿 (𝒔)
𝒂𝒏 ( 𝒔 −𝒓 𝟏 ) ( 𝒔 −𝒓 𝟐) … ( 𝒔 −𝒓 𝒏 )
• Besides n roots, effect of X(s) depends on type of input (step,
pulse, ramp etc.)
𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐 𝑨𝒏
𝒀 ( 𝒔 )= + +…+ + [ 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑿 ( 𝒔) ]
𝒔 −𝒓 𝟏 𝒔 −𝒓 𝟐 𝒔− 𝒓𝒏

• if no repeated roots, the inverse is (response as function of time)

𝒓𝟏𝒕 𝒓𝟐𝒕 𝒓𝒏𝒕
𝒀 ( 𝒕 )= 𝑨 𝟏 𝒆 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒆 + …+ 𝑨 𝒏 𝒆 + [ 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑿 ]
21
 Characterization of Process Response
All real roots
• Terms in previous equation are functions of time, grow if roots are
+ve (unstable) and decay if roots are -ve (stable response)
• If any root is positive, response will grow exponentially, will be
unstable
• No oscillations (monotonic response)

22
 Characterization of Process Response
All real roots
• Transient die out time, response decay to zero if root is negative,
starting from 1 (e0=1)
• Let ert = e-5 = 0.0067, or 0.67 % < 1%
• Time required for the kth exponential term to reach 0.67% of its
initial value is −𝟓
𝒕 𝒌=
𝒓𝒌
• Root with least -ve value will take longest transient die out time

23
 Characterization of Process Response
Pair of complex conjugate roots
𝒓 𝟏= 𝝆+ 𝒊 𝝎 𝒓 𝟐= 𝝆 −𝒊 𝝎
𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐
𝒀 ( 𝒔 )= + +…
𝒔 − 𝝆 −𝒊 𝝎 𝒔 − 𝝆 +𝒊 𝝎
( 𝑨 ¿ ¿𝟏+ 𝑨𝟐 )(𝒔 − 𝝆 ) 𝒊 ( 𝑨 ¿ ¿ 𝟏− 𝑨𝟐 )𝝎
𝒀 ( 𝒔 )= 𝟐 𝟐
+ 𝟐 𝟐
+…¿ ¿
(𝒔 − 𝝆) +𝝎 (𝒔 − 𝝆) +𝝎
𝑩( 𝒔 − 𝝆) 𝑪𝝎
𝒀 ( 𝒔 )= 𝟐 𝟐
+ 𝟐 𝟐
+…
( 𝒔 − 𝝆) + 𝝎 ( 𝒔 − 𝝆) + 𝝎
• It can be shown that A1 & A2 are complex numbers & conjugates of each other.
• Consequently, B & C are real numbers.
• Inverse LT of previous equation

24
 Characterization of Process Response
Pair of complex conjugate roots
sin ( 𝝎𝒕+𝜃 )=sin 𝜃 cos 𝝎𝒕+cos 𝜃 sin 𝝎 𝒕 𝝆𝒕
𝒀 ( 𝒕 )=𝑫 𝒆 sin ( 𝝎 𝒕+ 𝜃 ) + …
Where, , is the initial amplitude

is the phase angel, in radians

• Due to sine wave, the response is oscillatory

• Amplitude of the wave varies with time according to
• Can grow with time if is +ve, decay to zero if is -ve
Answers of some important questions:
• The response is oscillatory
• The oscillations grow with time (unstable) if any of the pairs of complex
roots has a +ve real part
25
 Characterization of Process Response
Pair of complex conjugate roots
• Frequency of sine wave is equal to the imaginary
part of the roots, .
• Time for a complete cycle is period of oscillations
𝟐𝝅
𝑻=
𝝎
• The time it takes to die out is controlled by the real
part of roots, .
• Time it takes for the oscillations to decay to < 1% of
initial amplitude, e-5 = 0.0067, 0.67%
−𝟓 ts is the settling time
𝒕 𝒔=
𝝆
• Decay ratio: the ratio at which the amplitude of the
oscillations decays in one period 𝝆𝑻 𝟐 𝝅𝝆 / 𝝎
𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐=𝒆 =𝒆 26
 Characterization of Process Response
Final steady-state value
• For a final steady-state to exist, the input variable, X(t), must remain steady
for some time.
• Use final value theorem & assume a step input, , or

𝒎 𝒎− 𝟏
𝒃 𝒎 𝒔 + 𝒃𝒎 −𝟏 𝒔 + …+ 𝒃𝟎
𝒀 ( 𝒔 )= 𝒏 𝒏 −𝟏
. 𝑿 (𝒔)
𝒂𝒏 𝒔 + 𝒂 𝒏 −𝟏 𝒔 +…+ 𝒂 𝟎

[ ]
𝒎 𝒎−𝟏
𝒃𝒎 𝒔 +𝒃 𝒎−𝟏 𝒔 +… +𝒃 𝟎 ∆ 𝒙 𝒃𝟎
∆ 𝒀 = lim 𝒔 = ∆𝒙
𝒔→𝟎
𝒏
𝒂 𝒏 𝒔 + 𝒂𝒏 − 𝟏 𝒔 𝒏− 𝟏
+ …+ 𝒂𝟎 𝒔 𝒂 𝟎

𝒃𝟎
∆𝒀= ∆𝒙
𝒂𝟎

27
 Characterization of Process Response
Example 2-3.1
Roots of denominator are -0.1, -0.333, -1
The response is monotonic and stable.

• tk =(-5/-0.1,-5/0.33,-5/-1)=50,15,&5 minutes.
• For a step change in X(t), final SS value is 2.5/1=2.5 times amplitude of step

• The roots of the denominator are -1±i2 and -3. response is oscillatory with
frequency of 2 rad/min and a period of 2π/2=3.14 minutes. Stable response

• Time to decay to 0.67 % of its initial amplitude in -5/-1=5 min., the term with
real root decays in -5/-3=1.67 min. So sine wave term is dominant term.
• Decay ratio = e(-1)(3.14)=0.043
• This means that amplitude is reduced to 4.3% of its value during one cycle.
• Final SS change in Y(t) is 0.8 = (=12/15) times size of sustained change in X(t).
28
 Characterization of Process Response
• Initially process is at SS
• Apply a +ve step change to an input variable

Monotonic change Integrating

(overdamped processes (surge
behavior, first order) vessel system)

Underdamped or
oscillatory behavior
(exothermic rxn, Inverse response
biochemical rxn, (steam drums,
poorly tuned FB distillation columns,
controller) adiabatic PFR)

_______________ positive gain processes

29
- - - - - - - - negative gain processes
 Example 3.3 (Bequette)
𝐴 𝑘1 𝐵 𝑘2 𝐶 𝑟 1 =−𝑘1 𝐶 𝐴
→ →
𝑟 2 =−𝑘2 𝐶 𝐵
2 𝐴 𝑘3 𝐷
2
→
𝑟 2 =−𝑘3 𝐶 𝐴
2
𝑟 𝐴=− 𝑘1 𝐶 𝐴 −𝑘3 𝐶 𝐴 𝑟 𝐶 =𝑘2 𝐶 𝐵
1
𝑟 𝐵 =𝑘1 𝐶 𝐴 − 𝑘2 𝐶 𝐵 𝑟 𝐷= 𝑘3 𝐶 2𝐴
2

30
 Example 3.3 (Bequette)
Second order differential equation
• Model for isothermal CSTR 𝒅 𝒙𝟏
=−𝟐 . 𝟒𝟎𝟒𝟖 𝒙𝟏 +𝟕 𝒖
𝒅𝒕
𝒅 𝒙𝟐
=𝟎 . 𝟖𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝒙 𝟏 −𝟐 . 𝟐𝟑𝟖𝟏 𝒙 𝟐 − 𝟏 .𝟏𝟏𝟕𝟎 𝒖 𝒚 =𝒙 𝟐
𝒅𝒕
 Where x1 and x2 represent the concentrations of two
components (in deviation variable form); the initial conditions
are x1(0) = x2(0) = 0

 Solve for the output (conc. of component 2) response to a unit

step input.
𝟐
𝒅 𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒖
𝟐
+𝟒 . 𝟔𝟒𝟐𝟗 +𝟓. 𝟑𝟖𝟐𝟏 𝒚=− 𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟕𝟎 +𝟑 . 𝟏𝟒𝟕𝟐𝒖
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
with the initial conditions y(0) = dy(0)/dt = 0, & the input is
initially u(0) = 0.
31
 Example 3.3 (Bequette)
Second order differential equation
𝑠2 𝑌 ( 𝑠 ) +4 . 6429 ( 𝑠 ) +5 . 3821 𝑌 ( 𝑠 ) =−1 .1170 𝑠𝑈 ( 𝑠 ) =3 . 1472𝑈 (𝑠)
−1 . 1170 𝑠+3 .1472
𝑌 ( 𝑠 )= 2
𝑈 ( 𝑠)
𝑠 + 4 . 6429 𝑠 +5 . 3821
• Here we consider a unit step input, U(s) = 1/s.
−1 . 1170 𝑠+3 .1472 1 − 1. 1170 𝑠+ 3 .1472
𝑌 ( 𝑠 )= . =
𝑠 + 4 . 6429 𝑠 +5 . 3821 𝑠 𝑠( 𝑠 + 4 .6429 𝑠+5 . 3821)
2 2

𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 0 . 5848 14 . 4630 −15 . 0478

𝑌 ( 𝑠 )= + + = + +
𝑠 ( 𝑠 +2 . 4053) ( 𝑠+2 . 23763) 𝑠 ( 𝑠+2 . 4053) ( 𝑠+ 2. 23763)

𝑦 ( 𝑡 )=0 .5848+14 . 4630 exp (− 2 . 4053 𝑡 ) −15 . 0478 exp ⁡(− 2 .2376 𝑡

32
 Linear Low Order Systems
(Ogunnaike)
First-order systems
• Systems with first-order differential equations such as:
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚
𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂 𝟎 𝒚 =𝒃𝒖(𝒕) 𝝉 + 𝒚 = 𝑲𝒖(𝒕)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Where, for , 𝝉=𝒂𝟏 / 𝒂𝟎 𝑲 =𝒃/ 𝒂𝟎

𝑲
𝒈 ( 𝒔) =
(𝝉 𝒔 +𝟏) (
𝒚 ( 𝒔) =
𝑲
𝝉 𝒔+𝟏 )
𝒖( 𝒔 )

• K: steady state gain

• : time constant
• Single pole at s = -1/, and no zeros

33
 Linear Low Order System
Physical Examples of first order systems
𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎
𝒅𝒉
𝑨𝒄 =𝑭 𝒊 −𝒄𝒉
𝒅𝒕

• In deviation variable form

𝒅𝒚 𝒄 𝟏
=− 𝒚+ 𝒖
𝒅𝒕 𝑨𝒄 𝑨𝒄

𝟏/ 𝒄 steady state gain

𝒈 ( 𝒔)=
( 𝑨𝒄 / 𝒄 ) 𝒔 +𝟏 time constant

34
 Linear Low Order System
Physical Examples of first order systems

• 1st order, irreversible reaction

A→B

𝒅𝒚
𝒅𝒕 (
+ 𝒌+
𝟏
𝜽
𝟏
𝒚= 𝒖
𝜽 )

• y (cA), u(cAf), k(reaction rate constant)

& is the reactor residence time (V/F)

( 𝟏
)
( ) ( )
𝜽 𝒌+ 𝟏 𝟏 𝜽
𝒈 ( 𝒔) = 𝝉= 𝑲=
( 𝜽
𝜽 𝒌+𝟏 )
𝒔 +𝟏 𝜽 𝒌+𝟏 𝜽 𝒌+𝟏
35
 Linear Low Order System
Physical Examples of first order systems
• Read section 4-2.4 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒌
𝒅𝑻 𝟏 𝝀 𝟏
=− 𝑻 + 𝑸+ 𝑻 𝒊
𝒅𝒕 𝜽 𝝆 𝑽 𝑪𝒑 𝜽
𝒅𝒙 𝟏 𝟏
=− 𝒙+ 𝜷 𝒖+ 𝒅 𝒚 =𝒙
𝒅𝒕 𝜽 𝜽

;;

(
𝒚 ( 𝒔) =
𝜷𝜽
𝜽 𝒔 +𝟏 )
𝒖 (𝒔 )+
𝟏
(
𝜽 𝒔 +𝟏
𝒅 (𝒔) )
𝒚 ( 𝒔 ) =𝒈 ( 𝒔 ) 𝒖 ( 𝒔 ) +𝒈 𝒅 ( 𝒔 ) 𝒅 (𝒔)
• Effect of the input u on the system output (its own ) is same as
• Effect of the disturbance d on the output (its own ) the process
is same 36
 Response of 1st order system to various inputs
Step response 𝑲 𝑨
𝒚 (𝒔 )=
𝝉 𝒔 +𝟏 𝒔

(
𝟏
𝒚 (𝒔 )= 𝑨𝑲 −
𝝉
𝒔 𝝉 𝒔+𝟏 ) 𝒚(𝒕)=𝑨𝑲 (𝟏−𝒆 ) −𝒕/𝝉

• At steady state, y(t) → AK

• Ratio of the steady-state value of the
output to that of the input (AK/A is K).
• Hence, K is called steady-state gain.

• When , y(t) = 0.632AK

• y(t) attains 63.2% of its ultimate value
in time units
• It is easy to establish that by the time t
= 3.9 , y(t) has reached 98% of its UV,
reaching the 99% mark when t = 4.6 .
37
 Response of 1st order system to various inputs

( )|
Step response 𝒅𝒚 𝑨𝑲
• The slope of the step = at
response
𝒅𝒕 𝒕=𝟎 𝝉
the origin,
• At initial rate of change of y(t), UV be
attained in exactly time
• K is the measure of “by how much” the
process output will ultimately change in
response to a step change in the input
• is a measure of “how fast” the process
responds to the input

• The magnitude of step response is indicated by K (K↑, y(t)↑)

• While indicates the speed of response (↓, faster the response)
• With =0, y = AK, fastest possible response, i.e., instantaneously 38
 Response of 1st order system to various inputs
Step response
• The difference between the fastest possible response and the
actual step response for this process, when integrated over time
gives a measure of the “reluctance” i.e.:
∞ ∞
𝑱 =∫ [ 𝒚 − 𝒚 ( 𝒕 ) ] 𝒅𝒕 = 𝑨𝑲 ∫ [ 𝟏 − ( 𝟏 − 𝒆 ) ] 𝒅𝒕
∗ − 𝒕/ 𝝉

𝟎 𝟎

∞
𝑱 = 𝑨𝑲 ∫ 𝒆
−𝒕 /𝝉
𝒅𝒕= 𝑨𝑲 𝝉
𝟎

39
 Response of 1st order system to various inputs
Step response
𝒚 ( ∞)
• Steady-state gain, K 𝑲=
𝑨
• Time constant, 𝑨𝑲 𝒚 ( ∞ ) 𝑨𝑲 𝒚 (∞ )
𝝈= = So that: 𝝉= =
𝝉 𝝉 𝝈 𝝈
Where, , is the slope of y(t) response at the origin

can also be obtained: at t = the value of the output is

y()=0.632y()

40
 Response of 1st order system to various inputs
Rectangular pulse response Ymax=y(
b)

{
𝒖 ( 𝒕 )= 𝟎 𝒕 < 𝟎 ,𝒕 >𝒃
𝑨 𝟎<𝒕 < 𝒃
𝑨
𝒖 ( 𝒔 )= ( 𝟏 − 𝒆− 𝒃𝒔 )
𝒔 Rectangular pulse response of a
first-order system

𝑲 𝑨
𝒚 ( 𝒔) = ( 𝟏− 𝒆− 𝒃𝒔 )
𝝉 𝒔+ 𝟏 𝒔

𝒇 ( 𝒕 )= ¿
41
 Response of 1st order system to various inputs
Impulse response Impulse response of a first-
order system
𝜹 ( 𝒕 )= { 𝑨 𝒕 =𝟎
𝟎𝒕>𝟎

𝑲
𝒚 ( 𝒔) = 𝑨
𝝉 𝒔+ 𝟏
𝑨𝑲 − 𝒕/ 𝝉
𝒚 (𝒕)= 𝒆
𝝉
• The impulse response indicates an
immediate “jump” to a value at t = 0

• Followed by an exponential decay

𝒅
𝒅𝒕
( 𝒚 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒑 ) =𝒚 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆
42
 Response of 1st order system to various inputs
Ramp response Ramp response of a first-
order system
𝑨
𝒖 ( 𝒕 )= { 𝟎 𝒕 <𝟎
𝑨𝒕 𝒕 >𝟎
𝒖 ( 𝒔 )=
𝒔
𝟐

𝑲 𝑨
𝟐 𝒚 ( 𝒕 ) = 𝑨𝑲 𝝉 ( 𝒆 +𝒕/𝝉 −𝟏 )
𝒚 ( 𝒔)= −𝒕 /𝝉
𝝉 𝒔+ 𝟏 𝒔

• As

• The response is asymptotic to a ramp

function with slope AK, displaced by
time units from the origin at y = 0.

𝒅
(𝒚
𝒅𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒑
) =𝒚 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒑

43
 Response of 1st order system to various inputs
Sinusoidal response Sinusoidal response of a
first-order system
𝒚 ( 𝒔) = ( 𝑲
) 𝑨𝝎
𝝉 𝒔+𝟏 𝒔 𝟐+ 𝝎 𝟐

𝒚 ( 𝒕 ) = 𝑨𝑲
[ 𝝎𝝉
𝟐
( 𝝎𝝉 ) +𝟏
𝒆 −𝒕 /𝝉
+
𝟏
√ ( 𝝎𝝉 ) +𝟏
𝟐
sin ( 𝜔 𝑡 +𝜙 )
]
−𝟏
𝜙=tan (− 𝝎𝝉 )
• 1st term decays, vanishes as
• After transient die out (4 to 5 times )
• Ultimate response will be a pure sine wave.

𝑨𝑲
𝒚 ( 𝒕 )|𝒕 → ∞ = sin ( 𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜙 )
√ ( 𝝎𝝉 ) 𝟐
+𝟏

Ultimate periodic response (UPR) as it is a function of periodic input –

the sinusoidal response ultimately settles.
44
 Response of 1st order system to various inputs
Characteristics of the Ultimate Periodic Response
• & the UPR are both sine with same frequency .

• The UPR sine wave lags behind the input signal by an angle .

• The ratio of UPR’s amplitude to that of the input sine wave is , a

quantity termed as “amplitude ratio” (AR).

√
Amplitude ratio 𝑨𝑹= 𝑲 / ( 𝝎𝝉 )𝟐 +𝟏 Phase angle 𝜙=tan −𝟏 (− 𝝎𝝉 )

Studying the behavior of AR and functions as they vary with is the

main objective in frequency response analysis.

45
 Pure Gain Systems

• If , (infinitely fast response to inputs), i.e., for a system, is so

small as to be negligible

𝒅𝒚
𝝉
𝒅𝒕
+ 𝒚 = 𝑲𝒖(𝒕) 𝒚 (𝒕)=𝑲𝒖(𝒕) 𝒚 (𝒔 )=𝑲𝒖(𝒔 )
𝒈 (𝒔 )=𝑲
• Such systems are always at steady-state, moving instantly from
one SS to another SS with no transient behavior.

• TF of PGSs has no poles and no zeros.

46
 Pure Gain Systems
Physical examples of pure gain system The capillary system
• Input variable is F, output is h.

𝒉= 𝑹𝑭 R is the resistance

𝒚 =𝑅 𝒖 𝒚 =𝒉− 𝒉𝟎 ;𝒖= 𝑭 − 𝑭 𝟎
• Any change in F is instantaneously transmitted as a change in h.
• Other systems are electrical resistors and the mechanical spring.
• A small pneumatic control valve with very rapid response if the
other parts of the process have much larger time constants
• Proportional controller
• The controller output is dependent on the input signal as

𝒄 (𝒕)= 𝑲 𝒄 𝜺(𝒕)
47
 Pure Gain Systems
Response of PGS to various inputs
• The responses of PGSs are identical to the input functions,
differing only in magnitude.
• The input function is amplified if K>1, attenuated if K<1, and left
unchanged if K=1.
Response Input Output
Step response

Rectangular
pulse response

Impulse
response
Ramp response

Sinusoidal 48
 Pure Capacity Systems/ Integrating Systems
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚
𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂 𝟎 𝒚 =𝒃𝒖( 𝒕) If , 𝒂𝟏 =𝒃𝒖(𝒕 )
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒚
=𝑲 ∗ 𝒖(𝒕)
𝒅𝒕
Pure capacity systems,
∗ ∗
𝑲 𝑲
𝒚 (𝒔 )= 𝒖(𝒔) 𝒈 ( 𝒔 )=
𝒔 𝒔
• 1st order system approaches pure capacity system as & while
their ratio , remains fixed at (finite constant).

• The transfer function of a pure capacity system has one pole at

the origin (s = 0) and no zeros.

49
 Pure Capacity Systems/ Integrating Systems
Physical example of a pure capacity system
• F is usually fixed, independent of h
• Fi is usually the input & can change Storage tank with
an outlet pump
𝒅𝒉
𝑨𝒄 =𝑭 𝒊 − 𝑭
𝒅𝒕
• In terms of deviation variables

𝒅𝒚
𝒚 =𝒉− 𝒉𝒔 ,𝒖=𝑭 𝒊 − 𝑭 𝒊 𝒔 𝑨𝒄 =𝒖
𝒅𝒕
𝟏/ 𝑨 𝒄 ∗
𝒚 (𝒔 )= 𝒖(𝒔) 𝑲 =𝟏/ 𝑨 𝒄
𝒔
• Other examples include, heating of well-insulated batch systems,
the filling of tanks with no outlet, and batch preparation of
solutions by addition of chemicals to solvent, etc.

50
 Response of pure capacity system to various inputs

Step response 𝒚 ( 𝒔) =
∗
𝑲 𝑨
=
𝑨
∗
𝑲 𝒚 ( 𝒕 ) = 𝑨 𝑲
∗
𝒕
𝟐
𝒔 𝒔 𝒔
• A sudden increase in the input flow rate results in a continuous
increase in the liquid level in the tank
Response Input Output
Step response

Rectangular
pulse response

Impulse
response
Ramp response

Sinusoidal
51
response
 Response of pure capacity system to various inputs
∗
𝑨𝑲
𝒚 (𝒕)=
𝝎
[ 𝟏+ sin ( 𝝎 𝒕 −𝟗𝟎 ) ]
°

∗
𝐾 °
𝐴𝑅=
𝜔
𝜙=−90 52
 The Lead/Lag System

• Presence of 1st order numerator term ( 𝝃 𝒔+𝟏 )

𝒈 ( 𝒔 ) =𝑲
(𝝉 𝒔+𝟏)
Lead/lag system
• UPR sine wave lags behind the input wave by degrees
• Terms in the denominator of a TF are first-order lags.
• With no denominator polynomial, the UPR leads the input:

𝒈 ( 𝒔 ) =𝑲 ( 𝝃 𝒔 +𝟏 ) 𝝓=tan−𝟏 ( 𝝎𝝃 )
• 1st order numerator terms are referred to as 1st-order leads.
• System having both lead and lag, called lead/lag system

, : lead time constant, : lag time constant

𝝆=𝝃 /𝝉 : 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅 −𝒕𝒐− 𝒍𝒂𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐

53
 The Lead/Lag System

• TF for the lead/lag system has one pole () and one

zero ()

• Rare chemical systems behave like this

• Control system design (feedforward control systems)

54
 Obtaining the dynamic response of lead/lag system

𝒈 ( 𝒔 ) =𝑲
( 𝝃 𝒔+𝟏 )
(𝝉 𝒔+𝟏) [
= 𝑲 𝑨 𝟎+
𝑨𝟏
( 𝝉 𝒔 +𝟏 ) ] 𝑨 𝟎=
𝝃
𝝉
𝝃
=𝝆 𝑨 𝟏=𝟏 − =(𝟏 − 𝝆)
𝝉

[
𝒚 ( 𝒔 ) =𝒈 ( 𝒔 ) 𝒖 ( 𝒔 )= 𝝆 𝑲 +(𝟏 − 𝝆 )
( 𝑲
(𝝉 𝒔+𝟏 ) )] 𝒖 ( 𝒔)
• The dynamic behavior of the lead/lag system is a weighted
• The dynamic behavior of a pure gain system & that of a first-
order system, the weighting factor being , the “lead-to-lag”
ratio.
• yg(t) is the response of a pure gain system (gain=K)
• y1(t) is the response of the first-order system (gain K, time
constant ) to the same input function
• The response of the lead/lag system is given by:

𝒚 ( 𝒕 ) =𝝆 𝒚 𝒈 ( 𝒕 ) +(𝟏 − 𝝆) 𝒚 𝟏 ( 𝒕 )
55
 Process Example of Lead/Lag System

• A large flow rate FA

• A tiny quantity FB (dye, catalyst, etc) is mixed
with it.
• Sometimes, it is desirable to feed a fraction
of the B directly into the tank outlet.
• Outlet conc. of B, cB
𝒅 𝒄𝑩
𝑽 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒌
= (𝟏 − 𝝆 ) 𝑭 𝑩 𝒄 𝑩𝒇 − [ 𝑭 𝑨 + ( 𝟏 − 𝝆 ) 𝑭 𝑩 ] 𝒄 𝑩
𝒅𝒕 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒌

[ 𝑭 𝑨 +( 𝟏 − 𝝆 ) 𝑭 𝑩 ] 𝒄 𝑩 + 𝝆 𝑭 𝑩 𝒄 𝑩𝒇
𝒄𝑩 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒌

𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕
𝑭 𝑨+ 𝑭 𝑩
𝑽
If FA >> : 𝑭 𝑨 + 𝑭 𝑩 ≃ 𝑭 𝑨 + ( 𝟏− 𝝆 ) 𝑭 𝑩 ≃ 𝑭 𝑨 𝝉=
𝑭𝑨

𝝉
𝒅 𝒄𝑩
𝒅𝒕
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒌
=
[ (𝟏 − 𝝆 ) 𝑭 𝑩
𝑭𝑨 ]𝒄 𝑩𝒇 − 𝒄 𝑩 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒌
𝒄𝑩 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕
=𝒄 𝑩 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒌
+
( 𝝆𝑭𝑩
𝑭𝑨 )
𝒄 𝑩𝒇
56
 Process Example of Lead/Lag System

𝒚 =𝒄 𝑩 −( 𝒄𝑩 )𝒔
𝒙=𝒄 𝑩
𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕

𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒌
− (𝒄 𝑩
𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕

𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒌
)𝒔
𝒖=
𝑭𝑩
𝑭𝑨
𝒄 𝑩𝒇 −
𝑭𝑩
𝑭𝑨 (
𝒄 𝑩𝒇
) 𝒔

𝝉
𝒅 𝒄𝑩
𝒅𝒕
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒌
=
[
(𝟏 − 𝝆 ) 𝑭 𝑩
𝑭𝑨
𝒄 𝑩𝒇 − 𝒄 𝑩
] 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒌
𝝉
𝒅𝒙( 𝒕 )
𝒅𝒕
=( 𝟏− 𝝆 ) 𝒖 ( 𝒕 ) − 𝒙( 𝒕)

𝒄𝑩 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕
=𝒄 𝑩 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒌
+
( 𝝆𝑭𝑩
𝑭𝑨
𝒄 𝑩𝒇
) 𝒚 ( 𝒕 ) =𝒙 ( 𝒕 ) +𝝆 𝐮 ( 𝐭 )

𝒚 ( 𝒔 ) =𝒙 ( 𝒔 ) + 𝝆 𝐮 ( 𝐬 )= 𝝆+
[ (𝟏 − 𝝆 )
𝝉 𝒔 +𝟏
𝒖( 𝒔 )
] 𝒙 ( 𝒔 )=
(𝟏 − 𝝆 )
𝝉 𝒔 +𝟏
𝒖( 𝒔 )

if (𝝃 𝒔+𝟏)
𝒚 ( 𝒔) = 𝒖( 𝒔)
(𝝉 𝒔 +𝟏)
The TF for a process will involve a lead term whenever the state-
space model has an output depending directly on an input.
57
 Unit Step Response of the Lead/Lag System

− 𝒕/ 𝝉
𝒚 𝒈 ( 𝒕 ) =𝑲 ; 𝒚 𝟏 ( 𝒕 )= 𝑲 (𝟏 − 𝒆 )
𝒚 ( 𝒕 ) =𝑲 [ 𝝆 +(𝟏 − 𝝆 )(𝟏 −𝒆 −𝒕 /𝝉 ) ]
𝒚 ( 𝒕 ) =𝑲 [ 𝟏 −(𝟏 − 𝝆)𝒆− 𝒕 /𝝉 ¿ ]
• At (pure gain)

• When , with a response speed (lag time

constant)

• Initial value of y(t) > or < than final

value depends

58
 Unit Step Response of the Lead/Lag System

• Initial jump to a value lower than the ultimate value

• Required a weaker lead or a stronger lag
• Such systems give the impression of being more reluctant to
“move” by virtue of the dominant influence of the lag term.
• As , the lead/lag system becomes a pure first-order system

• Pure gain system (cancellation of the identical polynomials)

• Attains the ultimate value instantaneously (y(t)=K, for all times)

59
 Unit Step Response of the Lead/Lag System

• Initial jump overshoots the final value

• When we have stronger lead or weaker lag

• The swiftness of this type of response – indicative of the

dominant influence of the lead term – tends to give the
impression of an impulse of a first-order system.

• It is worthwhile to remark once again that the approach to the

final steady state is governed solely by the lag time constant;
but the nature and value of the initial response is determined by
the lead-to-lag ratio.

60