EARTHQUA

ENGINEERING
KE (STATIC)
 INTRODUCTION

What Is An Earthquake?

An Earthquake is a feeble shaking to violent

trembling of the ground produced by the sudden change /
displacement of rocks or rock materials below the earth’s
surface. Sudden displacements along faults fissures in the
solid and rigid layer of the earth generate Tectonic
Earthquakes. Those induced by the rising lava or magma
beneath active volcanoes generate Volcanic
Earthquakes.
Classification of earthquake
according to source
mechanism:
1. Tectonic Earthquake: This is due to
movement of the plates of the earth’s surface or
sudden displacement along fault fissures in the
solid or rigid layer of the earth. This type of
earthquakes may occur at depths that are
shallow (0 to 70 kms), intermediate (70 to 300
kms) or deep (300 to 700 kms)
 2. Volcanic Earthquake: This is associated
with volcanic activities which are triggered by
fracturing of rocks, by rising magma / lava or by the
upward flow of magma itself. These occur beneath
the edifice of active volcanoes and, therefore, at very
shallow depths (from less than 1 kilometer to about
30 kilometers deep).
 3. Explosion Earthquake: This is caused by
underground detonation of chemical or nuclear
devices.
4. Collapse Earthquake: Occurs in regions of
underground caverns and mines due to sudden
collapse of the roof of the mine or cavern.
5. Earthquake due to massive land-sliding.
Classification of earthquake
according to the depth of
focus:
1. Shallow focus – focus depth less than 70
kilometer. This is the most destructive type because it
accounts 75% of energy is released during
earthquake.
2. Intermediate focus – focus from 70 to 300
kilometer depth.
3. Deep focus – focus depth greater than 300
kilometer.
Note:
a. Intermediate to deep-focus earthquake are
confined to areas associated with deep-sea trenches
and zones where two parts of earth’s outer layer are
in a state of collision.
b. Shallow earthquake occur along active
faults, at place where parts of the earth’s outer layer
are moving away from each other, and near deep-sea
trenches.
c. Focus is a point from which the seismic wave
first emanates.
d. Epicenter is a point on the ground directly
above the focus.
 EARTHQUAKE PRONE
AREAS:
A. Along Tectonic Plate Margins
The earth has an outermost shell, about 80-
kilometers thick, which is solid and rigid. This
outermost shell of the earth is called the Lithosphere.
The lithosphere is subdivided into small and large
pieces with some pieces large enough to contain
continents. These pieces of lithosphere are called
Tectonic Plates or, simply Plates (Figure 1).
 Immediately beneath the lithosphere is another
thin shell called Asthenosphere (Figure 2) which can
be made to flow by slowly applied deforming forces
that behaves essentially as a solid. (The best way to
imagine the nature of the asthenosphere is by looking
into how a piece of wax behaves. Place a solid metal
ball on the surface of a wax, the metal ball manages
initially to rest on top of the wax. However, after
several days it can be observed that the ball has now
partly sunk into the wax. Thus, the wax behaves as if
were a solid being able to initially support the metal
ball but yields plastically to the vertically applied
weight of the ball).
 The lithosphere and its tectonic plates float on
the asthenosphere. Because the asthenosphere is
being induced to flow by convection cells produced
by rising hot materials from the earth’s interior and
by the sinking of these materials back into the earth’s
interior as they experience cooling during their
upward journey , the tectonic plates are being jostled
about and displaced relative to one another. This
jostling of plates and the relatives’ displacements of
plates along their margins generate tectonic
earthquakes.
Figure1. The world pattern of plates, ocean, ridges trenches and
transform faults in relation to earthquake epicenters indicated by
block dots.
Figure 2. Diagram showing the lithosphere, asthenosphere,
trench, subduction zones and mid oceanic ridge
There are three types of plate boundary along
which relative movements of neighboring
plates can occur and trigger the occurrence of
earthquakes.
1. Divergent Plate Margin where two
neighboring tectonic plates move away from each
other or are pulled apart. Here, new strips of the
ocean floor are created as fresh lava is inserted
and solidifies along the openings produced every
time there is active separation between two
neighboring plates. The pulling apart of plates and
the insertion of lava along divergent plate margins
are accompanied by shallow-seated earthquakes.
Divergent plate margins coincide with the axes of
midoceanic ridges which lie on the seafloor under
a 3 to 4 kms of water.
 2. Convergent Plate Margin where two
neighboring tectonic plates move towards and push
against each other. An active convergent plate
margin is marked either by a deep-sea trench like the
Philippine Trench or by a mountain chain like the
Himalayas. A deep-sea trench defines the points of
entry of one of the plates as it descends into the
earth’s interior beneath the other plates.
 Note:
a. If the leading edges of two plates pushing
against each other are pre-existing ocean floors, the
plates which is faster-moving sinks and descends into
the earth’s interior (or subducts) beneath the slower-
moving plate.
b. If one plate contains continental landmasses
near its leading edge (like the South American Plate)
and the other contains only pre-existing ocean floor
(like the Nazca Plate), the one with continents stays
afloat and the other composed only of old ocean
floors subducts.
 c. If both opposing plates contain continental
masses (like the Indian and Eurasian Plates), neither of
the two will subduct when the continents are finally
brought together or collide along the leading edges. The
trench that brought them together disappears and is
replaced by mountain chains as they continue to interact
by collision. The Himalayas, for example, came into being
by the collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate.
 Earthquake associated with the convergent
plate margins have depths ranging from shallow
to very deep. Shallow-seated earthquakes result
from the overcoming of frictional resistance
between the upper surfaces of the subducting
plate and the truncated side of the overriding
plate. They are also produced by active fracturing
of the subducting plates as they bend to begin
their descent into earth’s interior along trenches.
 3. The third type of plate margin is called a
Transform Fault. A transform fault is a vertical
surface that cuts and breaks the continuity of
divergent and convergent plate margins. When it
transects mid-ocean ridges, the only active part of
the fault where adjacent plates slide past each
other is bounded by the axes of disconnected
ridge segments. Earthquakes generated along
transform faults are shallow-seated. The famous
San Andreas Fault of California is an example of
transform fault.
B. Along Active Faults
Faults – these are breaks or zones of
weakness in rocks along which displacements had
occurred or can occur again. They may extend for
hundred s of kilometers across the earth’s surface
and tens of kilometers downward, even down to
the base of lithosphere. Faults showing signs or
documented history of recent displacements are
called Active Faults (e.g. Philippine Fault Zone and
San Andreas Fault).
Types of faults based on orientation of fault
surfaces and nature of relative movement of
displaced rock.
1. Normal Fault – a fault that has an inclined surface
(about 70 degrees) and is characterized by the
downward sliding of the fault block situated above the
fault surface.
2. Thrust or Reverse Fault – this fault has also an
inclined surface but slopping only by about thirty
degrees and is characterized by the upward sliding of
the fault block located above the fault surface.
3. Wrench or Strike-Slip Fault – a fault that has a very
steep to vertical surface along which one fault block
may move horizontally to the left or to the right with
respect to the opposite block. Sudden displacement
along this type of fault is accompanied by weak to
destructive earthquake
Figure 3. Types of fault
RATE OF MOTION ALONG PLATE MARGINS AND
FAULTS

The rates of movement or velocities of

relative motion between adjacent plates and fault
blocks range from about one to twelve centimeter
per year. These velocities are slow by human
standards but if we consider the fact that a
velocity of 10 centimeters per year will yield a
total displacement of 100 kilometers in only 1
million years, plate motion can bring about
significant changes on the surface of the earth
with these changes oftentimes accompanied by
earthquakes.
 STICK-SLIP THEORY AND
EARTHQUAKES
One can observe that major earthquakes do not hit the
same place every year. Ten to more than 100 years will have
to pass before the same area is affected by another major
earthquake. This suggests that although tectonic plates
continue to move, there are places where they get stuck to
each other due to friction. Enough energy will have to be
stored to overcome frictional resistance so that the plates can
continue to move. Thus, rocks along the stuck plate margins
and nearby faults are strained by plate motions and when
they are insufficiently strained to overcome the locking
frictional bond, slippage occurs thereby releasing suddenly
the stored energy. After slipping, the rocks along a plate
margin or an active fault are locked together again by friction
and begin storing energy which shall be released during the
next earthquake, ten to 100 years later.
EPICENTER Versus FOCUS
The epicenter is a point on the earth’s surface
situated nearest to where the earthquake exactly
originates. If an earthquake happened to occur very
near the earth’s surface, then the epicenter locates the
point of origin of the earthquake.
However, we know that an earthquake can
occur at various depths, from 0 to 700 kilometers deep.
When an earthquake occurs deep in the earth’s
interior, the point of its origin is called focus. The focus
coincides with where the initial slip or sliding took
place. The epicenter of this earthquake is obtained by
projecting vertically to the earth’s surface the
determined location of the focus in the earth’s interior.
LOCATING THE EPICENTER

The epicenter of an earthquake is

determined using the differences in arrival times
of the primary or P waves and secondary or S
waves. These values are obtained from
instrumental records of seismic waves by a
network of seismographs. At least three records
from properly spaced seismic stations forming an
open triangle and with synchronized timing
system are required for accurate determination of
the epicenter. From the seismograms, the arrival
times of P and S waves from different stations are
determined.
 For seismic networks without synchronized timing
systems, the epicentral distances from each station are
determined by computation or from pre-computed velocity
table using S-minus-P or the difference in arrival time between
the P and S waves.
Knowing the epicentral distances, epicenter can be
determined graphically or analytically with the use of
computers. The most common graphical technique is the circle
method. Circles are drawn on a map of known scale using the
location of recording stations as centers and computed
epicentral distances at each station as radii. The common
intersection of the circles drawn locates the earthquake
epicenter.
QUANTIFICATION OF EARTHQUAKE:
( Intensity versus Magnitude)

There are two general ways to describe the

strength of an earthquake.
1. Earthquake Intensity. This method is
based on how people, man-made structure,
natural objects and land surfaces behave and
react in areas affected by an earthquake. By
observing and documenting all these behaviors
and reactions, one arrives at the felt Intensity of
an earthquake within a given area.
The types of scale used under this are:
a. Rossi-Forel Earthquake Intensity Scale (10
intensities) – this was developed in the 1880’s.
b. Modified Rossi-Forel Earthquake Intensity Scale (9
intensities) – this was developed in 1935 and is being
used in the Philippines.
c. Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale of 1931
In the Philippines, we use the Modified
Rossi- Forel Earthquake Intensity Scale (9
intensities)
 2. Earthquake Magnitude. This method of describing
the strength of an earthquake is based on instrumentally
derived information and correlates strength with the amount
of total energy released at the earthquakes’ point of origin.
Magnitude is calculated mathematically using the amount
and duration of movements that ground vibration causes on
the needle of standard seismograph.
The types of scale used are:
a. Richter Magnitude Scale (ML) – this was developed in 1935
by Charles F. Richter.
b. Surface-Wave Magnitude (MS) –
developed by Gutenberg in 1936.
c. Body-Wave Magnitude (Mb).
Note:
Charles F. Richter, an American
seismologist, devised a scale for expressing the
total energy released by an earthquake, following
the suggestion of H.O. Wood. In 1935, Richter
proposed a magnitude scale which is an open-
ended scale of 1 to 9. This scale is the now famous
and internationally used RICHTER SCALE.
 In the Richter scale, for every unit increase in
magnitude the seismic energy released increases by 30
times. Thus an earthquake with Magnitude 5 has an
accompanying seismic energy 30 more than a Magnitude
4 earthquake but 30 times less than the one with
Magnitude 6.
For the purpose of appreciating how much energy is
released during occurrences of great earthquakes
(Magnitude 7 and above), it can be told that a Magnitude
8 earthquake has a seismic energy equaling 10,000
atomic bombs of the vintage that annihilated Hiroshima
during world war 2.
 Table of Modified Rossi-Forel
Earthquake Intensity Scale
Intensity Scale Description

I Hardly Perceptible Shock. Felt under favorable conditions, only by an

experienced observer or a person with high sensitivity.

II Extremely Feeble Shock. Felt by person at rest or in the upper floors

of tall buildings.

Very Feeble Shock. Felt by several persons at rest. Duration and

III direction of ground vibrations may be perceptible. Dizziness or
nausea may be experienced by a few.

IV Feeble Shock. Felt generally by people indoors; by few people

outdoors. Hanging objects swing slightly. Frames of houses creak.

Moderate Shock. Felt generally by everyone. Hanging objects swing

V freely. Tall vases and unstable objects are overturned. Light sleepers
are awakened.
 Fairly Strong Shock. Generally wakens those who are asleep. Some people are
frightened enough to rush out of buildings. Hanging objects like lamps and small
VI potted plants oscillate. Very old or poor-built houses and other man-made
structures are lightly damaged.

Strong Shock. Overturns moveable and unstable objects like bookshelves and
drawers. Well built houses may be slightly damaged; old or poorly-built
VII structures, considerably damaged. Some cracks may develop in fishpond dikes
and road surfaces. Some landslides may occur in mountain slopes and along
steep banks.

Very Strong Shock. Causes panic among people. Trees are shaken strongly.
Some buildings may be partially or totally destroyed. The flow of springs and
VIII condition of wells change (i.e., drying up of wells). Sand and mud are ejected
from fissures in soft grounds to form “sand boils”. Cracks form in concrete
dikes. Small landslides and rock falls occur.

Extremely Strong Shock. Causes widespread panic among people in the affected
area. Many buildings are partially or totally destroyed. Ground fissures and
IX sound boils form. Subsidence may occur in some sites, especially on soft
grounds. Major landslides and rock falls occur.
 Table of Richter Magnitude
Scale
Magnitude
Description
Scale

Earthquake with M below 1 are only detectable when an ultra sensitive

1
seismometer is operated under favorable conditions.

Most earthquakes with M below 3 are the “hardly perceptible shocks” and are
2
not felt. They are only recorded by seismographs of nearby stations.

Earthquakes with M 3 to 4 are the “very feeble shocks” and felt only near the
3
epicenter.

Earthquake with M 4 to 5 are the “feeble shocks” where the damages are not
4
usually reported.

Earthquake with M 5 to 6 are the “earthquakes of moderate strength” and are

5 felt over the wide areas; some of them cause small local damages near the
epicenter.
 Earthquake with M 6 to 7 are the “strong earthquakes” and are accompanied by
6 local damages near the epicenters. First class seismological stations can observe
them wherever they occur within the earth.

Earthquake of M 7 to 8 are the “major earthquakes” and can cause considerable

7 damages. Shallow-seated or near-surface major earthquakes when they occur
under the sea may generate tsunamis.

Earthquake with M 8 to 9 are the “great earthquakes” occurring once or twice a

year. When they occur in land areas, damages affect wide areas. When they
8 occur under the sea, considerable tsunamis are produced. Many aftershocks
occur in areas approximately 100 to 1000 kilometers in diameter.

Earthquakes of M over 9 have never occurred since the data based on the
9 seismographic observation became available.
PHILIPPINES AS AN EARTHQUAKE
COUNTRY
The Philippine Archipelago lies between two major
tectonic plates of the world. The northwestward moving
Pacific Plate is presently pushing the Philippine Sea Plate
beneath the eastern side of our archipelago at the rate of
about 7 centimeter per year. The oceanic parts of the
slower-moving Eurasian Plate are being subducted along
western side of Luzon and Mindanao at the rate of 3
centimeter per year.
 The northeastward component of the Eurasian Plate
motion is now sustaining the active collision of the
continental block of Palawan with Mindoro and of the
northern sections of the Zamboanga Peninsula with
western Mindanao. These plates’ interactions,
displacements along the Philippine Fault Zone which
decouples the northwestward motion of the Pacific with
the southwestward motion of the Eurasian Plate, and the
movements along other active faults are responsible for
the present-day high seismicity of the Philippine
Archipelago.
The identified earthquake generators
in the Philippine Archipelago are the
a. Philippine Trench following:
b. East Luzon Trench
c. Manila Trench
d. Collision Zone between Palawan and Mindoro
e. Negros Trench
f. Collision Zone between Zamboanga Peninsula and Western
Mindanao
g. Sulu Trench
h. Cotabato Trench
i. Davao Trench
j. Philippine Fault Zone and its many
branches
k. Many active faults (e.g, Lubang, Tablas,
Casiguran and Mindanao Faults)
 Such listing of earthquake generators and recorded
major earthquakes hitting the Philippines should readily
convince us that our country is indeed seismically active –
an earthquake country. We should also accept the fact
that, since earthquake with magnitude 7 or more had
affected the Philippines in the recent past, the likelihood
of these destructive earthquakes occurring again in the
future is indeed very strong.
 Major Philippine Faults

1. Philippine Fault
- extends 1200 km from Lingayen Gulf in Luzon to Davao
Gulf, South of Mindanao (left-lateral strike-slip)
Earthquakes associated with the fault
- Mati, Mindanao earthquake of April 15, 1924 Ms = 8.3
- Ragay Gulf earthquake of 1973 Ms = 7.0
- Masbate earthquake of 1869
2. Bangui Fault
-extends for more than 300 kms and slices NW-SE
direction in northern part of the Central
Cordillera from Bangui Bay and extends
southward to mark the boundary between the
Cordillera and the Cagayan Basin (right lateral strike-slip)
-no seismic activity related to this fault but is said
to have fairly recent movements
 3. East Luzon Transform Fault
-about 50 to 70 km long trending E-W offshore north of
Polilio Island (left-lateral strike-slip)
-earthquake magnitude generally low to moderate
4. San Antonio Fracture Zone
-located north of Subic Bay beneath the northern apron
Natib Volcano
5. Taal Fracture Zone
-NE-SW trending fracture zone passing Northern Mindoro,
extending across the Verde Island Passage through Taal
Volcano and the eastern lobe of Laguna de
Bay
Other Faults
a. Casiguran Faults
b. South West Mindoro Thrust Fault
c. Western Panay Thrust Fault
d. Cotabato Normal Fault Southwest of
Mindanao
e. Northeast Mindoro Normal Fault
f. Zamboanga Peninsula Fault
g. Valley Fault Line
 Notable Philippine Earthquakes
Date Epicenter ML Intensity
Deaths/Injured

July 2, 1954 Bacon, Sorsogon 8.3 IX

13 / 101
April 1, 1955 Lanao, Mindanao 7.5 VII
291 / 713
August 2, 1968 Casiguran, Quezon 7.3 VII
270 / 600
April 7, 1970 Baler, Quezon 7.3 VII
15 / 200
August 17, 1976 Moro Gulf, Mindanao 8.0 VIII
3739 / 8000
July 16, 1990 Luzon 7.8 VIII
1500 /
 Seismicity of the Earth

The Major Plates of the Earth’s Surface:

2. Eurasian Plate 4. American Plate
3. Pacific Plate 5. African Plate
4. Indo- Australian Plate 6. Antarctic Plate

Other Plates:
7. Philippine Plate 9. Cocos Plate 11. Caribbean
Plate
8. Fiji Plate 10. Nazca Plate
 Worlds Biggest Earthquakes in
History
Here are the largest magnitude earthquakes in history according
to the US Geological Survey.
a. 9.5, Chile, May 22, 1960. A quake off the coast of southern
Chile killed 1655 people and left 2,000,000 homeless.
b. 9.2, Alaska, United States, March 27 1964. A quake and
tsunami killed 128 people and caused severe damage to the state’s
largest city Anchorage.
c. 9.1, Indonesia, December 26, 2004. An undersea quake
caused a massive tsunami that devastated coastlines in countries around
the Indian Ocean, ultimately killing 227,898 people.
d. 9.0, Russia, November 4, 1952. A quake off the coast of
the remote Kamchatka peninsula in Russia’s far east caused Pacific wide
tsunamis. No lives were lost.
e. 9.0, Port of Arica (now part of Chile), August 13, 1868.
Two great earthquakes generated catastrophic tsunamis that killed
25,000 people in South America and affected locations throughout the
Pacific Basin. The Port of Arica was hit by a quake felt up to 1,400 km
away.
1.9.0, North America, January 26, 1700. A quake affecting 1,000 km of coastline
set off a tsunami that crossed the Pacific Ocean and caused damage to coastal
villages in Japan.
2.8.9, Japan, March 11, 2011. An undersea quake off northeast Japan unleashed a
10-meter-high tsunami which left devastation in its wake.
3.8.8, Chilean coast, February 10, 2010. An offshore quake and tsunami killed
more than 500 people, most in the coastal area of Maule, 400 km southwest of the
capital Santiago.
4.8.8, Ecuador, January 31, 1906. A quake struck off the coast of Ecuador and
Colombia and was felt as far away as San Francisco. The generated tsunami killed
between 500 and 1,500 people.
5.8.7, Alaska, February 4, 1965. A quake in the remote Rat Islands generated a
tsunami reported to be 10 meters high.
6.8.7, Portugal, November 1, 1755. The capital Lisbon was struck by a quake while
many residents were in church. One-fourth of the city’s population perished.
7.8.7, Chile, July 8, 1730. A quake hit the city of Valparaiso, 120 km northwest of
the capital Santiago, causing a tsunami which hit more than 1,000 km of coastline.
 TSUNAMIS: WHY AND WHEN THEY
OCCUR
Tsunamis are giant sea waves generated by under-the-sea
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Not all submarine
earthquakes, however, can cause the occurrence of tsunamis.
Tsunamis can only occur when the earthquake is shallow-seated
and strong enough (M7.0) to displace parts of the seabed and
disturb the mass of water over it. Other sources of tsunamis
include submarine or coastal landslides, pyroclastic flows and
large volume debris avalanches from oceanic and partly
submerged volcanoes, and caldera collapse.
 Although tsunamis may be triggered in various ways,
their effects on the coastal areas are similar. The large waves
of a tsunami are preceded by initial lowering of the water
level even beyond the lowest tidal levels attained at a given
area. This phenomenon resembles the low tides which may
have led other people to call tsunami falsely as “tidal waves”.
 During the retreat of sea level, interesting sights are
often revealed. Usually underwater sandbars and coral flats
are exposed; fishes may be stranded in dry land, thereby,
attracting people to flock to the shoreline. After the retreat of
the sea level, the large waves follow. The time interval
between successive waves is usually from 20 to 30 minutes.
On some occasions, as many as 16 cycles of small and large
waves are observed. This means that the hazard from
tsunamis does not immediately dissipate after the first large
wave s since several waves may follow the first.
Usual velocities for tsunamis vary fro 700 to 800 km
per hour, depending on the water depth. In deep waters,
tsunamis travel faster while in shallow water, their velocity is
drastically reduced